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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Xavinanotech (talk | contribs) at 03:58, 5 May 2021 (There is no 'traditional' shudra classification in the Tamil society, and the shudra term was brought in only during the colonial times for the vellalar despite vehement opposition according to the cited sources. Updated the content appropriately. Removed „traditional“ and added „colonial times“). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For other uses, see Vellalar (disambiguation).

Vellalar
ReligionsHinduism, Christianity
LanguagesTamil
Subdivisions
[1]
Related groupsTamil people

Vellalar is a Tamil caste used primarily by various Sub castes who traditionally pursued agriculture as a profession in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. Some of the communities that identify themselves as a Vellalar are the numerically strong Arunattu Vellalar, Chettiar Vellalar[2][3] Chozhia Vellalar, Nanjinad Vellalar,[4] Karkarthar Vellalar, Kongu Vellalar, Thuluva Vellalar, and Sri Lankan Vellalar [5][6] who were classified as high ranking Shudras in the colonial times[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] and sometimes as Vaishyas[14][15][16][17] caste with 3 subdivisions, Bhu-Vaishyas[18][19][20][21] or agriculturalists, Go-Vaishyas or husbandsmen, and Dhana-Vaishyas[22] or merchants. The Vellalar enjoyed a status almost as high as Brahmins, due to the possession of land—the basis of wealth.[23] Vellalar were dominant communities in Tamil agrarian societies for 600 years until the decline of the Chola empire in the 13th century, with their chieftains able to practise state-level political authority after winning the support and legitimisation of Brahmins and other higher-ranked communities with grants of land and honours.[24]

Etymology

The word Vellalar may come from the root Vellam for flood, which gave rise to various rights of land; and it is because of the acquisition of land rights that the Vellalar got their name.[25]

According to C.E. Ramachandran, the earliest reference to the name is attested in the Tolkāppiyam, which divided the society in four classes Arasar, Andanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.[26]

However, modern English translations of the Tolkāppiyam reveal that the term mentioned is Vēlān or Vēlālar, & not Vellālar.[27]

Verse 1572 states: "The Vēlālar class take to no occupation but farming & cultivation."[27]

Verse 1573 states: "Weapons of war and wreaths to wear, The Vēlālar have access to, as they go on Mission of the state"[27]

This is also corroborated by Ramachandra Dikshitar,[28] who writes: "The Porul Sutra 75 of the Tolkāppiyam refers to the four-fold classification of castes, Araśar (Ksatriyas), Antaṇar (Brahmanas),Vaṇikar (merchants) and Vēlāḷar (agriculturists).The Vēlāḷas became in their turn divided into two classes, the higher and the lower. It is significant to note that the term Sudra is not to be found in this grammatical work. The petty chiefs or the Kurunilamannar generally belonged to the Vēlāḷa community. According to Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar these Vēlāḷas had marital relations with royal families, served as army commanders and were chieftains of smaller kingdoms."[28]

History

Vellālars worshipping lingam, snake-stones and Ganēsa from Castes and Tribes of Southern India (1909).

The Vellalars have a long cultural history that goes back to over two millennia in southern India,[29] where once they were a dominant land-owning community that through an alliance with the Brahmins, formed the ruling class.[30][31]

The Karmandala Satakam by Ãrai Kiḻãr, dated 1292-1342 C.E, during the reign of Hoysala King Veera Ballala III, states in verse 52: "The Vellalas of Karmandalam belonged to the Mānava Gotra & practiced the rite of upanayana or wearing the sacred thread."[32] As per the Apastambha Shrauta Sutra, The Mānava Gotra is a Rājarși-derived Dvija Gotra used by the 3-upper castes.[33]

Verse 31 of the Karmandala Satakam states that the Vellālas of Kārmandalam belonged to the clan of the Gangas: they were both Srotriyas; practitioners of Vedic rites or Southerners or Virāthiyars or people who were followers of either Buddhism or Jainism or Northerners.[34] In Verse 33, it is mentioned that the Gangas belonged to both Suryavamsa and Somavamsa and they had matrimonial alliances with other kings.[34]

Historian Usha R. Vijailakshmi observes that Verse 34 connects the origin of the Gangas to the origin of the Karakatha Vellalas of Southern Karnataka, as follows: "Gangeya Murthaka pala was born to Lord Shiva and he had two wives; the first wife had 54 sons & the second wife had 52 sons. Out of these Bhupalar, (one who practiced Agriculture) gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders, Dhanapalar, who was into trade, gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders Gopalar, (one who herded cattle) and one Agamurthi gave birth to 1 Vellala leader".[34]

The terms Bhupālar, Dhanapālar, & Gopālar refer to the 3 subdivisions of Vaishyas: Bhu-vaishya, Dhana-vaishya & Go-vaishya[35][36] respectively. Their professions correspond to the duties laid out for Vaishyas in the Manusmriti, which states, "trade, animal husbandry, and agriculture has been prescribed as the livelihood for the Vaishya. Their Law, however, is giving gifts, studying the Vedas, and offering sacrifices."[37] It is to be noted that the same legend is dealt with in certain detail by Edgar Thurston in his seminal work - Castes and Tribes of Southern India, in which he discusses about Vellala community of Tamilnadu.[34][38]According to Anthropologist L.D. Sanghvi, there is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaishyas : (1) Bhu-Vaishyas or farmers ,(2) Go-Vaishyas or husbandmen & (3) Dhana-Vaishyas or merchants. The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe.[39] Busnagi Rajannan states that the Kongu Vellalars are also referred to as Bhu-Vaishyas, Bhu-Pālan or Gangavamsam.[40] Simon Casie Chitty notes that the Sri Lankan Vellalars also follow this 3 fold classification of Vaishyas; The Chettiar Vellalar are Dhana-Vaishyas, the Karkathar Vellalar, Tuluva Vellalar and Chozhia Vellalar are Bhu-Vaishyas, and the Idayers are Go-Vaishyas.[41] Hayavadana Rao mentions that the Travancore Government Gazette of 1911 documented the Nanjinad Vellalas as Bhu-Vaishyas.[42][43] According to Henry Tambiah Wijayakone, the Sri Lankan Vellalars are classified among the Vaishya caste, with the Jaffna Vellalas belonging to the Bhu-Vaishya[44] caste, and the Colombo Chetties belonging to the Dhana-Vaishya[45] caste.

According to the anthropologist Kathleen Gough, "the Vellalars were the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola kings, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry".[31]

In the 1871 Madras Presidency census, Vellalars were ranked as Shudras, despite their claims that they were of Vaishya status.[46] A petition was made to the municipal commissioners of Madras, protesting against their being classed as Shudras, in which the Manusmriti was cited to point out that "the Vellalas do come exactly within the most authoritative definition given of Vaishyas and do not come within the like definition of Shudras"[46] The Vellalars who were land owners and tillers of the soil and held offices pertaining to land, were ranked as Sat-Shudra[47][48][49][50][51][52][53] in the 1901 census; with the Government of Madras recognising that the 4-fold division did not describe the South Indian, or Dravidian, society adequately.[54] Following the arrival of Dutch missionaries in the early 18th century, some Vellalar converted to Christianity.[55]

Sri Lanka

Main article: Sri Lankan Vellalar

The Vellalars of Sri Lanka have been chronicled in the Yalpana Vaipava Malai and other historical texts of the Jaffna kingdom. They form half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and are the major husbandmen, involved in tillage and cattle cultivation.[56][5] Local Sri Lankan literature, such as the Kailiyai Malai, an account on Kalinga Magha, narrates the migration of Vellala Nattar chiefs from the Coromandel Coast to Sri Lanka.[57] The Kings of Jaffna married among the Vellalas.[58]

Their dominance rose under Dutch rule and they formed one of the colonial political elites of the island.[59][60]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ "Vellala | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
  2. ^ Harriss-White, Barbara (1996). A Political Economy of Agricultural Markets in South India: Masters of the Countryside. SAGE Publications. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-80399-299-3.
  3. ^ Sanghvi, L.D. (1981). Biology of the People of Tamil Nadu. Indian Society of Human Genetics. p. 19.:"There is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaisyas : ( 1 ) Bhuvaisyas or farmers , ( 2 ) Govaisyas or husbandmen and ( 3 ) Dhanavaisyas or merchants . The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe."
  4. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana Rao (2014). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Anthropos, University of California. p. 514.:"Of the three subdivisions among Vysias, the Vellalas belong to one that is known as Bhoo-Vysias."
  5. ^ a b Derges, Jane (2013). Ritual and Recovery in Post-Conflict Sri Lanka. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 978-1136214882.
  6. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
  7. ^ Price, Pamela G. (1996). Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 0521552478.:”Dominant castes like the land - controlling Vellalar , whose practices were compatible with Brahminic ideas of purity , were considered high - ranking Sudras in the government system”
  8. ^ Diehl, Anita (1977). E. V. Ramaswami Naicker-Periyar: A Study of the Influence of a Personality in Contemporary South India. Stockholm ; Göteborg ; Lund: Esselte studium. p. 16. ISBN 9789124276454.:”In Tamil Nadu the traditional caste society is in practice reduced into Brahmins and Sudras, kith a large third group classified in administrative terms as Scheduled and Backward classes.) Prominent among the Sudras are Vellalar , Chettiar and Gounder”
  9. ^ Allen, H. G. (1888). The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and General Literature. Vol. 5. New York: Henry G Allen and Company. p. 191.:”Unooloom with a woman of the Vellala class of Sudras is lawful.”
  10. ^ Pillai, P. Chidambaram (2008). Right of Temple Entry. Chennai: MJP Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 9788180940392.:”The Brahmin goes with the Vellala and others of the Sudra caste in this affair”
  11. ^ Balfour, Edward (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. Vol. 3. 15, Picadilly, London: Bernard Quaritch. p. 811.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link):”The Vellala are a Sudra race of Hindus Tamil and the Kodun - Tamil , which so widely who speak Tamil. They assume the honorific designation of Mudali or Mudaliar meaning first man, and are chiefly farmers, but many of them are soldiers.”
  12. ^ Yanagisawa, Haruka (1996). A Century of Change: Caste and Irrigated Lands in Tamilnadu, 1860s-1970s. Manohar. p. 35. ISBN 9788173041594.:”Manual of Tinnevelly district tabulates the composition of the village population as follows : Brahmans , 10 families ; Vellalar and other ' Sudra ' landholders ...”
  13. ^ Narayana, M. G. S. (1977). Re-interpretations in South Indian History. India, South: College Book House. p. 15.:”They mention Parpan Andanar or Marayor (Brahmins), Aracar ( Kings or Kshatriyas ) , Vanikar ( Merchants or Vaisya ) , and Vellalar ( Cultivators or Sudra ) , in many places“
  14. ^ Sanghvi, L.D. (1981). Biology of the People of Tamil Nadu. Indian Society of Human Genetics. p. 19.:"There is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaisyas : ( 1 ) Bhuvaisyas or farmers , ( 2 ) Govaisyas or husbandmen and ( 3 ) Dhanavaisyas or merchants . The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe."
  15. ^ Chitty, Simon Casie (2016). The Ceylon Gazetteer: Containing an Accurate Account of the Districts, Provinces, Cities, Towns ... &c. of the Island of Ceylon. Palala Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-1358116018.
  16. ^ Thurston, Edgar (2018). CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA VOL 1: With commentary by VED from VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS. VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS, Aaradhana, Deverkovil 673508 India. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-98077-710-6.:"Bhu vaisya (earth Vaisya).—A name returned by some Nattukottai Chettis and Vellalas."
  17. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 92. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"he classifies the Vellalas under the Vaisya caste and even goes to the extent of calling the Vellalas 'The Poo Vasi Ya'"
  18. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 92. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"he classifies the Vellalas under the Vaisya caste and even goes to the extent of calling the Vellalas 'The Poo Vasi Ya'"
  19. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana Rao (2014). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Anthropos, University of California. p. 514.:"Of the three subdivisions among Vysias, the Vellalas belong to one that is known as Bhoo-Vysias."
  20. ^ Rajannan, Busnagi (1992). Salem Cyclopedia: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary of Salem District, Tamil Nadu. Institute of Kongu Studies (Salem, India). p. 340. ISBN 978-8-19002-880-6.
  21. ^ Thurston, Edgar (2018). CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA VOL 1: With commentary by VED from VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS. VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS, Aaradhana, Deverkovil 673508 India. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-98077-710-6.:"Bhu vaisya (earth Vaisya).—A name returned by some Nattukottai Chettis and Vellalas."
  22. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 57. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"Colombo Chetties belong to the Tana Vasiya Caste"
  23. ^ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 592. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  24. ^ Moffatt, Michael (2015). An Untouchable Community in South India: Structure and Consensus. Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-40087-036-3.
  25. ^ Venkatasubramanian, T. K. (1993). Societas to Civitas: evolution of political society in South India : pre-Pallavan Tamil̤akam. Kalinga Publications. p. 64. ISBN 9788185163420.
  26. ^ Ramachandran, C. E. (1974). Ahananuru in Its Historical Setting. University of Madras. p. 58.
  27. ^ a b c Murugan, V (2000). Tolkāppiyam in English. Institute of Asian studies (Chennai). p. 644.
  28. ^ a b Dikshitar, Ramachandra (2007). Studies in Tamil Literature and History. Klempner Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-40677-245-6.
  29. ^ Meluhha and Agastya : Alpha and Omega of the Indus Script By Iravatham Mahadevan pages 16: "The Ventar-Velir-Velalar groups constituted the ruling and land-owning classes in the Tamil country since the beginning of recorded history""Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  30. ^ Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries By André Wink pages 321: "Not only were the Vellalas the landowning communities of South India,..."[1]
  31. ^ a b Gough, Kathleen (2008). Rural Society in Southeast India. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780521040198.
  32. ^ Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 432.
  33. ^ Scharfe, Hartmut (1973). Handbuch der Orientalistik: Indien, Part 2. BRILL. p. 115. ISBN 978-9-00409-060-6."ĀśśS I 1,3,5f . prescribes gotra - s derived from rājarși - s ( such as Mānava , Aila , Paurūrava ) for kings , or Mānava for all the three upper castes if the exact gotra is unknown ; vaisya - s sometimes used Bhālandana , Vātsapra or Mārkhila"
  34. ^ a b c d Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 430.
  35. ^ Chitty, Simon Casie (2016). The Ceylon Gazetteer: Containing an Accurate Account of the Districts, Provinces, Cities, Towns ... &c. of the Island of Ceylon. Palala Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-1358116018.
  36. ^ Sanghvi, L.D. (1981). Biology of the People of Tamil Nadu. Indian Society of Human Genetics. p. 19.:"There is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaisyas : ( 1 ) Bhuvaisyas or farmers , ( 2 ) Govaisyas or husbandmen and ( 3 ) Dhanavaisyas or merchants . The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe."
  37. ^ Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manus Code Of Law: A Critical Edition And Translation Of The Mānava Dharmaśāstra. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19517-146-4.
  38. ^ Thurston, Edgar (2018). CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA VOL 1: With commentary by VED from VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS. VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS, Aaradhana, Deverkovil 673508 India. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-98077-710-6.:"Bhu vaisya (earth Vaisya).—A name returned by some Nattukottai Chettis and Vellalas."
  39. ^ Sanghvi, L.D. (1981). Biology of the People of Tamil Nadu. Indian Society of Human Genetics. p. 19.:"There is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaisyas : ( 1 ) Bhuvaisyas or farmers , ( 2 ) Govaisyas or husbandmen and ( 3 ) Dhanavaisyas or merchants . The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe."
  40. ^ Rajannan, Busnagi (1992). Salem Cyclopedia: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary of Salem District, Tamil Nadu. Institute of Kongu Studies (Salem, India). p. 340. ISBN 978-8-19002-880-6.
  41. ^ Chitty, Simon Casie (2016). The Ceylon Gazetteer: Containing an Accurate Account of the Districts, Provinces, Cities, Towns ... &c. of the Island of Ceylon. Palala Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-1358116018.
  42. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana Rao (2014). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Anthropos, University of California. p. 514.:"Of the three subdivisions among Vysias, the Vellalas belong to one that is known as Bhoo-Vysias."
  43. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana Rao (2014). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Anthropos, University of California. p. 514.:"Of the three subdivisions among Vysias, the Vellalas belong to one that is known as Bhoo-Vysias."
  44. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 92. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"he classifies the Vellalas under the Vaisya caste and even goes to the extent of calling the Vellalas 'The Poo Vasi Ya'"
  45. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 57. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"Colombo Chetties belong to the Tana Vasiya Caste"
  46. ^ a b Beteille, Andre (1996). Caste, Class and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-908872-0.
  47. ^ Price, Pamela G. (1996). Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 0521552478.:”Dominant castes like the land - controlling Vellalar , whose practices were compatible with Brahminic ideas of purity , were considered high - ranking Sudras in the government system”
  48. ^ Diehl, Anita (1977). E. V. Ramaswami Naicker-Periyar: A Study of the Influence of a Personality in Contemporary South India. Stockholm ; Göteborg ; Lund: Esselte studium. p. 16. ISBN 9789124276454.:”In Tamil Nadu the traditional caste society is in practice reduced into Brahmins and Sudras, kith a large third group classified in administrative terms as Scheduled and Backward classes.) Prominent among the Sudras are Vellalar , Chettiar and Gounder”
  49. ^ Allen, H. G. (1888). The Encyclopaedia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and General Literature. Vol. 5. New York: Henry G Allen and Company. p. 191.:”Unooloom with a woman of the Vellala class of Sudras is lawful.”
  50. ^ Pillai, P. Chidambaram (2008). Right of Temple Entry. Chennai: MJP Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 9788180940392.:”The Brahmin goes with the Vellala and others of the Sudra caste in this affair”
  51. ^ Balfour, Edward (1885). The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. Vol. 3. 15, Picadilly, London: Bernard Quaritch. p. 811.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link):”The Vellala are a Sudra race of Hindus Tamil and the Kodun - Tamil , which so widely who speak Tamil. They assume the honorific designation of Mudali or Mudaliar meaning first man, and are chiefly farmers, but many of them are soldiers.”
  52. ^ Yanagisawa, Haruka (1996). A Century of Change: Caste and Irrigated Lands in Tamilnadu, 1860s-1970s. Manohar. p. 35. ISBN 9788173041594.:”Manual of Tinnevelly district tabulates the composition of the village population as follows : Brahmans , 10 families ; Vellalar and other ' Sudra ' landholders ...”
  53. ^ Narayana, M. G. S. (1977). Re-interpretations in South Indian History. India, South: College Book House. p. 15.:”They mention Parpan Andanar or Marayor (Brahmins), Aracar ( Kings or Kshatriyas ) , Vanikar ( Merchants or Vaisya ) , and Vellalar ( Cultivators or Sudra ) , in many places“
  54. ^ Kingship and political practice in colonial India, by Pamela G. Price, p.61: "...when government census officers placed Vellalar in the Sat-Sudra or Good Sudra category in its 1901 census, Vellalar castemen petitioned this designation, protesting this designation..
  55. ^ Etherington, Norman, ed. (2005). Missions and Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19153-106-4.
  56. ^ Fernando, A. Denis N. (1987). "PENINSULAR JAFFNA FROM ANCIENT TO MEDIEVAL TIMES: Its Significant Historical and Settlement Aspects". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka. 32: 84. JSTOR 23731055.
  57. ^ Holt, John (2011). The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0822349822.
  58. ^ Rajasuriar, G.K. (1998). The History of the Tamils and the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka. Quill Graphics. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-64636-570-1.
  59. ^ Gerharz, Eva (3 April 2014). The Politics of Reconstruction and Development in Sri Lanka: Transnational Commitments to Social Change. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 9781317692799.
  60. ^ Welhengama, Gnanapala; Pillay, Nirmala (2014). The Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka: From Communalism to Secession. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 9781135119713.

Further reading

  • Lucassen, Jan; Lucassen, Leo (2014). Globalising Migration History: The Eurasian Experience. BRILL. ISBN 978-9-00427-136-4.
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