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Egyptian Invasion of Harar

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Egyptian Invasion of Harar
Part of Ethiopian-Egyptian War
Date1874–1885
Location
Hararghe
Result
  • Temporary occupation of Hararghe
  • British Egyptian forcers retreat to Zeila, and Mount Hakim[1]
  • Egyptian/British Hararghe disestablished in 1885
Territorial
changes		 Hararghe is occupied by the Egyptians, and northern parts split off such as Afar
Belligerents
Khedivate of Egypt
British Empire		 Emirate of Harar, Afran Qallo French Empire, Sultanate of Aussa Sultanate of Tadjoura
Commanders and leaders
  • Raba Orfo Jilo Biko (Leader of All Afran Qallo tribes)
  • Sultan Adam Asshabiye (Sultan of Jarso )[2]
  • Sultan Muhammed Hanfadhe (Sultan of Aussa)
  • Garad Jibril of Gerhi- Galla [3]
  • Garad Abu Bakr Liben (Garad of Galla Northwest of Harar)
  • Sheikh Abdulle Sohaim Al Danakili (Afar-Somali dignitary)
  • Sheikh Osman Yaro (Sheikh of Nole)
  • Sultan Ali Karo (Sultan of Nole)
  • Emir Muhammed Abu Bakr until 1884 (Emir of Zeila, and Afar) [4]
  • Dini Abu Bakr Sultan of Rahaito
  • Garad Waday Rige of Alla Oromo [5]
  • Garad Waday Iru of Alemaya Ala Oromo

    • The Egyptian occupation of Hararghe was a minor conflict between the Sultan of Aussa/Oromo, Somali tribesmen, and the Khedivate of Egypt from 1874 to 1885.[3] In 1874 the Egyptians invaded the Hararghe province and ruled the it for 11 years.[4] The Egyptians occupied the neighboring cities of Zeila and Berbera in modern-day Somaliland/Somalia.[5]

    Background

    Ismail Pasha ruler of Egypt, and mastermind of the invasion of East Africa.

    After the Egyptian power vacuum, they decided to focus southward, and aimed to take full control over the Nile.[6] After annexing Darfur they aimed for Eritrea (then known as Ethiopia). The Egyptians and Ethiopians were not on good terms at the time. The Egyptians attempted many unsuccessful invasions of the Bogos/Hamasien provinces which are located in modern-day Eritrea; these attacks were repelled by Emperor Tewodros II.[7] Around the same time the Oromo under Muhammad ibn 'Ali 'Abd ash-Shakur were prospering, and controlled Harar. The Emir of Harar is said to have persecuted his own people, and favoured the Oromo tribes over the Harari people. So the Harari opposition reached out to the Egyptians who had already annexed Zeila and Berbera. Asafa Jalata described this as betrayal, because the Harari opposition were the ones that invited the Egyptians to colonise Harar itself.[8] The Egyptians used this as a reason to invade Harar.

    Invasion of northern Somali coast, and Somali territory

    By 1873[9][10] the Egyptians peacefully assumed control of Zeila, Berbera and along with Bulhar which was temporarily closed.[11][12][13] In 1875 the Egyptians entered Jaldessa, which was inhabited by the Issa clan, and left a small garrison to be the seat of Ugaas Robleh Farah.[14]

    Issa Ugaas Rooble pictured with his nephew Jardon in 1885
    Jaldessa, 1885 (Jaldessa was a Egyptian outpost, and seat of Ugaas Robleh Farah.

    In 1877 the Egyptians signed a treaty with the Gadabuursi,[15] and the Gadabuursi along with the Issa accepted Egyptian rule.[16] Before Egyptian occupation, the Issa and Gadabuursi controlled the Zeila-Harar trade route and the clans were responsible for the security of the route.[16]

    Illustration of Berbera, under Egyptian rule. 1884 circa

    In mid 1884 an English officer Hunter was sent to Harar, and carried many surveys. In his surveys, he wrote that the Egyptians had converted many Oromos, and that the Oromo population in Hararghe at the time was estimated at 250,000. He also wrote that the Issa clan who numbered around 60,000 lived near the trade routes of Zeila/Harar, and were the most dangerous Somali clan, and that the Habr Awal who lived in between Harar and Berbera were friendly.[17] One of the Somali tribes that resisted the Egyptians were the Bursuuk, however they were defeated and subjugated.

    Zeila waterfront under Egyptian rule 1880

    Battle of Aussa

    Afar-Ottoman relationship before 1875

    Before 1875, the Afar and Ottomans had very little contact with each other, but they had been neighbours for a while. Around the year 1578, the Ottomans invaded Massawa and other cities on the Red Sea coast.[18]

    Battle

    The battle of Aussa (1875) was fought between the forces of Werner Munzinger and of the sultan of Aussa. Munzinger Pasha was defeated at Gondet by the Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV, and after his great defeat he was instructed to lead his forces elsewhere. Munzinger arrived in Aussa in 1875 and wiped out the Afar garrison, leaving the Egyptian army victorious.[19]

    Werner Munzinger, 1873

    Battle of Tadjoura

    19th century Tadjoura landscape featuring village near port.

    From the account given by survivors on the 5th of October Munzinger pasha along with his wife and child arrived in Tadjoura with their errands being to open up the roads between Ankober and Tadjoura to enter into communication with King Menelik of Showa. He was also instructed to annex the Afar Sultanate of Aussa, and march further into areas like Wollo.[20] His forces consisted of 350 soldiers, 2 guns, and 45 camels. On the 14th of November upon reaching Aussa the Egyptian forces were attacked at night by a large number of Gallas. The Afar and Galla forces under Sultan Muhammed Hanfadhe managed to subdue and destroy the Egyptian army, leaving only a small number left who fled to Massawa. Amongst the Egyptian casualties was the Martyrs of their leader Munzinger his wife, and child.[21][22][23]

    Aftermath

    Not long after the destruction of the Egyptian expedition, Arabs from Yemen who were then ruled by the Ottomans, attempted a invasion of Zayla and Aussa. However the Ulama of Aussa prevented these attacks and pushed the Ottoman Yemenis out of their territories.[24] Isma'il Pasha replaced Munzinger with Muhammed Rauf pasha. Rauf was instructed to lead a large force of Egyptians/Turkish soldiers into the south eastern side of Ethiopia which is where he embarked his conquest of eastern Ethiopia.[25]

    Battle of Hakim

    The battle of Hakim was a historic battle between the Egyptians and the Harar Oromo tribes. According to the Oromo, the Oromo elite were told to come near Mount Hakim to make peace with the Egyptians. However, this was a trap to kill all the Oromo elite in order to scare the other Oromo in the area. According to the Oromo sources not one man survived, and the Egyptians had slaughtered every Oromo leader in Hakim.[26][27]

    Aftermath

    Rauf continued to march towards Harar, and in mid 1875 he received a letter written in Arabic from the Garad of the Jarso Adam Ashabbiye, who had participated in former skirmishes between the Egyptians and Oromos. The letter includes the Garad/Sultan praising Rauf and swearing his allegiance to him and giving up his kingdom to him. It also includes the Garad saying that he and his people are Muslim and do not want to fight a war with the powerful Egyptians.[28] Rauf entered Jarso in around early October 1875 and was welcomed by 62 Oromo leaders which had all agreed to surrender their territories to Rauf.[29]

    Expeditions into Nole/Ala territory (1874-1875)

    In 1874 the Egyptians led a large force from Zeila into Hararghe. The Nole and Ala, who at the time were the most powerful in their region, did not welcome the Egyptians. Instead they led a series of campaigns against the Egyptians.

    Gildessa

    Prior to the Egyptian occupation, Jaldessa along with the Harar-Berbera Trade route[30] was under Nole Oromo control.[31][32] According to the report on Harar the Nole Oromo numbered around 142,000, and were centred in Jaldessa which was the Border between the Issa, and Nole.[33] The Nole had previously subjugated the Issa near Jaldessa, and were the dominant clan in Jaldessa.[34] The Egyptians arrived in Jaldessa in 1875, and peacefully took control over the city, around the same time the Ugaas Of the Issa Robles Farah had moved his seat from elsewhere to Jaldessa.[35] The Egyptians constructed a fort to secure supplies from the coast, and left a contingent of Sudanese soldiers.

    Battle of Gaflole

    In September of 1875, a large Afran Qallo force which was led under the skilled Orfo Jilo Biko ambushed the Egyptian army, and destroyed the Egyptians west of Harar. In the Battle the Egyptians captured Ali ibn Abu Bakr, a Harari-Oromo Noblemen.[36] Ali ruled the territory of Igu, and was the cousin of the Amirs of Harar and Zeila, later on the Rauf invited all the Harari leaders to discuss about the Occupation, amongst them was Ali Abu Bakr who offered to betray his cousin.[37]

    Battle of Iftur

    On September 24, a large number of Afran Qallo soldiers arrived at Mount Hakim, and Iftur. The leader of the Oromo army Orfo Jilo Biko attacked the Egyptians, Orfo Jilo Biko’s army attacked both flanks. Mohammed Rauf’s skillful use of firepower destroyed the Oromo cavalry and archers. Muhammed Rauf sent his artillery to Mount Hakim where the battle of Hakim occurred.[38]

    Battle of Eguu

    The Battle of Eguu was one of the most important battles in Nole history. The powerful Nole Oromo led their army into the outskirts of their territory at a place called Eguu (thirty miles west of Harar) which the Egyptians planned to attack. This did not end well for the Nole, as the Egyptian firearms beat the Nole cavalry back, as the horses were scared of the loud sounds. The battle lasted seven hours, and the entire Nole army was destroyed.[39]

    Battle of Abgou

    The Battle of Abgou was fought on 8 October, not long after the battle of Eguu. The Ala and Nole Oromo allied together, and led a large force of Oromo soldiers. They barred the roads and defeated the Egyptians. The next day (October 9) 37,000 Ala and Nole cavalry and infantry awaited the Egyptians near Abgou. Rauf reported that the Egyptians opened heavy fire on the Gallas. The battle lasted for 7 hours and 10 minutes, before the Oromos sent their women to announce their surrender.[40][41] The Egyptians requested that the Nole and Ala send their leaders. The Ala sent Al Buku Raya, and the Nole Oromo sent Uthman Yaro and Ali karow. The Nole representatives asked for mercy, but their request was ignored.[40]

    In spring 1882 The Egyptians had destroyed a Metta (Ala) and Oborra Oromo force at Chelenqo, and subjugated the Oborra/Ala tribes.[42]

    Battle of Dire Gofile

    The battle of Dire Gofile was the most important battle between the Oromo of Harar and the Egyptians. After the battle of Hakim under the orders of Ra'uf Pasha the Egyptians rushed to Dire Gofile which was deep in Nole territory (east of Harar) in a attempt to scare the Nole Oromo, he also took advantage of the Oromo leader Orfo Jilo Bikos presence in the area. Orfo had left his main force in the Ogaden desert which at the time was fighting the neighbouring Issa (clan) Somali. Even though the Oromo were small in numbers they didn't surrender easily, and made it hard for the Egyptians to enter Harar, however after the Oromo cavalry fell they surrendered, and the Oromo leaders such as Orfo Jilo Biko, Garad Jibril, Ali Abu Bakr, and Garad Adam Asihabiyye were captured, and sent to Cairo.[43][44] After the battle the Egyptians marched into Harar with no resistance except some Galla tribes.[45]

    Aftermath

    The Oromo tribes that surrendered to the Egyptians on October the 11th 1875 were all the 4 tribes of the Galla Nole, all the 12 tribes of the Galla Alla, the three tribes of the Galla Berteri, two tribes of the Galla Babile, the seven tribes of the Galla Abiba, the three tribes of the Hiri, and all the tribes of the Galla Abuba Galla Ittu, and the Zaho Jarelo Galla.[46]

    After conquering Harar Rauf killed all the Oromo leaders who didn’t surrender to Rauf and killed the Emir, and declared himself Emir of Hararghe.[47] Rauf subdued every Oromo tribe, and destroyed all rebellions put up to end Egyptian authority in Egypt.[48]

    Rauf Pasha commander of Egyptian Army, and governer of Harar

    his role as Emir of Harar lasted from 1875-1878, and he was succeeded by Raduan Pasha who ruled from 1878-1880. In 1880, Raduan was succeeded by Muhammed Nadi pasha (1880-1883), Raduan promoted to Governor of Tadjoura. Muhammed was succeeded by Ali Rida Pasha.

    Aftermath

    Galla Men in Harar during Egyptian Era

    After the Oromo defeat at Dire Gofile all the Oromo tribes surrendered. The Raba dori (Oromo constitution of Hararghe) never recovered after that defeat because the other Oromo were so ashamed, and established the Abaan institution. The Oromo Jarso who were ruled by their Garad Adam Ashabbiye made peace with the Egyptians. The Garad even made a poem praising the Egyptian general Rauf Pasha.[49] After the loss at Dire Gofile many Oromo converted to Islam. The Oromo men were all circumcised and had their hair cut off, and some were taken to Egypt to study. The last Raba (Ruler) of the Oromo from Harar Orfo was converted and changed his name to Omar. He also helped the Egyptians convert the Oromos and encouraged the Oromos to convert.

    Galla Garad Abu Bakr Liben of village northwest of Harar (1885).

    Withdrawal from Harar/French involvement 1885

    19th century map by Richard burtons featuring the Nole,Issa,Gadabuursi,Jarso, and Gheri Oromo-Somali tribes.

    In the mid 1880s the Mahdiyya sect had taken control of Sudan, and of much of Egypt. When trying to establish a stronghold in east Africa the Afran Qallo, and Somalis refused to take this sect of Islam[clarification needed] therefore the Mahdiyya were unsuccessful in taking control of Harar. Hunter anticipated that there would be four obstacles to overcome in order to evacuate:

    • 3,500 Egyptian soldiers could not all be evacuated at once, and had to leave at different tribes.[clarification needed]
    • The provision of camels to carry the force's equipment would rely on the Nole and Issa clans, as[clarification needed] they were hostile to the Egyptians.
    • They would leave a power vacuum between the Oromo and Somali political economic systems after their sovereignty was destroyed.
    • A military action could be led by the Oromo against the British and Egyptians, which could potentially lead to Somali involvement. This in turn would mean that the cities of Zeila and Jaldessa would be in crisis.[50]

    Hunters suggested that the Egyptians leave 500 each in different stages. He also recommended that the British Governor of Harar gave the Somalis and Afran Qallo their independence back.[51] Hunter's main concern was Berbera, as rumour spread about the Egyptian disaster in the Sudanese ports. Hunter claimed that Emir Abu Bakr of Zeila, an Afar business man, had great influence over the Issa and Afar. Hunter warned the Egyptians that Abu Bakr was probably planning a invasion of Berbera, and they should be ready. In March 1884 Hunter returned to Aden, and established himself as the first British officer as Governor of Harar. Hunter described the Bey of Berbera as a incautious ruler, and was ready to listen to any command, but like all his friends was thuggish and rude. He also describes Emir Abu Bakr as a powerful man who controlled slave trade routes in the Somali coast.[52] In 1884 the Capuchins arrived in Harar unannounced, without telling the Egyptians. This mission was successful in Berbera, but failed in Zeila. The Egyptians were afraid that the French church would create a religious war. In response the Egyptians did not provide the church with security inside and outside of Harar. In 1884 the Egyptians had left Berbera, and the British had signed a deal with the Habr Awal which allowed British presence in Berbera. Hunters then returned from Aden in August 1884, and ordered Nuba Pasha to evacuate Zeila. But this could not be done, due to Emir Abu Bakr's influence on the Somali tribes in the area.[53] The British pressured the Egyptian government, and time was running. Hunters predicted that if they received the supposed of Emir Abu Bakr of Zeila they would be able to evacuate Tadjoura by mid October. In response Abu Bakr tried to earn Hunters' favour, and gave Hunter economic resources. He even admitted that he had sold slaves in the past, but said he had since stopped, and regretted it. Abu Bakr requested Egyptian protection, and told Hunter that he himself would not continue as ruler of Zeila. On 27 October 1884 the Egyptians left Sagallo. Abu Bakr informed the British that the following night the French had planted their flag in the area. As pasha of Zeila it was Abu Bakr's duty to work with the British; however Emir Muhammed Abu Bakr was secretly working with the French in Djibouti.[54] Mohammed Abu Bakr was the direct successor of Haji Ali Sharmarke Saleh, he had gained the respect of the Issa and Afars, and controlled the now Tadjoura, and Zeila from 1860-1884.[55] He controlled the slave trade in the Red Sea, which proved to give him a large income.[56] In the late 19th century Henry Lambert a French councilman from Aden, had failed to convince Abu Bakr of Zeila to give up Obock and Tajura.[57] So after his death his brother Joseph signed a deal with Dini Abu Bakr (Abu bakrs brother) which allowed the French to anchor many ships in Obock,Doumera, and Ras Ali which was at the time ruled by the Rehyato dynasty, in return Dini was paid 10,000 Thalers.[58][59] According to Ahmed Dini (the son of Dini Abu Bakr) his father was in fact the sultan of Rehyato.[59] This angered the British Empire, who at the time were planning to sign a deal with the Issa, and make them turn against Abu Bakr. During Dino’s reign he opened caravan routes to Italian territory, and in return he received Italian protection.[60]

    Drawing of Emir Muhammed Abu Bakr Pasha, Emir of Zeila in 1877. Drawn by a member of a mission sent by the Società geografica italiana to explore Ethiopia in 1877–1878.
    Sultan Ali Dini Ahmed Abu Bakr ibn Mehmmed, of Tajura, 1877

    Hunter’s brought his two assistants Heath, and peyton to Zeila. He asked Raduan to help him evacuate the city, and lead Ali Rida of Harar, and 1,000 Egyptians out of Harar and to the Somali coast including Women of Children. Hunter ordered Raduan free all Afran Qallo prisoners specifically Garad Jibril of the Gehri Afran Qallo. Hunters left Peyton in charge of evacuating Harar until him, and Heath returned. Peyton successfully evacuated Harar, and Zeila by that time was already taken by the British. After the evacuation of Zeila Raduan,Ali, and Nadi returned to Egypt, and their mission was successful.

    British occupation 1880-1885

    After annexing the Egyptian Khedive the British had taken full control over Hararghe. The British sent expeditions to the Obora Oromo as they were the only Oromo who resisted the British occupation.[61] The son of Emir Abd ash Shakur 'Abd Allah II ibn 'Ali 'Abd ash-Shakur Abdallah was the first ever Harari to depose the British and Egyptians, and with Oromo support managed to push the Egyptians and British out of Harar to Mount Hakim.[62] In 1885 the British and Egyptian forcers left Hararghe, for it to be invaded by the king of Showa Menelik II.

    1885 Map of Hararghe after British influence.

    Notes

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    4. ^ Ben-Dror, Avishai (2018-08-23). Emirate, Egyptian, Ethiopian: Colonial Experiences in Late Nineteenth-Century Harar. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-5431-5.
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