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Kowloon Walled City

Coordinates: 22°19′56″N 114°11′25″E / 22.33222°N 114.19028°E / 22.33222; 114.19028
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Kowloon Walled City
九龍寨城
Walled city
An aerial view of Kowloon Walled City in 1989
Kowloon Walled City is located in Hong Kong
Kowloon Walled City
Kowloon Walled City
Coordinates: 22°19′56″N 114°11′25″E / 22.33222°N 114.19028°E / 22.33222; 114.19028
Country / CityChina (de facto, 1898–1912; de jure, 1898–1993)
British Hong Kong (de facto, 1912–1941 and 1945–1993)
Japan (de facto, 1941–1945)
DistrictKowloon City District
AreaKowloon City
Settledc. 1898
Demolished1993–1994
Government
 • TypeUngoverned
Area
 • Total
2.6 ha (6.4 acres)
Population
 (1990)
 • Total
50,000
 • Density1,930,000/km2 (5,000,000/sq mi)
Kowloon Walled City
Traditional Chinese九龍寨城
Simplified Chinese九龙寨城
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinJiǔlóng zhài chéng
Hakka
RomanizationGiu3lung2 cai4 sang2
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationGáulùhng sìhng jaaih
JyutpingGau2lung4 zaai6 seng4
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese九龍城寨
Simplified Chinese九龙城寨
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinJiǔlóng Chéng Zhài
Hakka
RomanizationGiu3lung2 sang2 cai4
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationGáulùhng sìhng jaaih
JyutpingGau2lung4 seng4 zaai6

Kowloon Walled City was an ungoverned and densely populated de jure Chinese enclave within the boundaries of Kowloon City, British Hong Kong. Originally a Chinese military fort, the walled city became an enclave after the New Territories were leased to the United Kingdom by China in 1898. Its population increased dramatically following the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World War II. By 1990, the walled city contained 50,000 residents[1] within its 2.6-hectare (6.4-acre) borders. From the 1950s to the 1970s, it was controlled by local triads and had high rates of prostitution, gambling, and drug abuse.[2]

In January 1987, the Hong Kong government announced plans to demolish the walled city. After an arduous eviction process, and the transfer of de jure sovereignty of the enclave from China to Britain, demolition began in March 1993 and was completed in April 1994. Kowloon Walled City Park opened in December 1995 and occupies the area of the former walled city. Some historical artefacts from the walled city, including its yamen building and remnants of its southern gate, have been preserved there.

History

Military outpost

The front entrance of a fort with mountains in the background.
Lung Tsun Stone Bridge and Lung Tsun Pavilion (Pavilion for Greeting Officials) of Kowloon Walled City in 1898

The history of the walled city can be traced back to the Song Dynasty (960–1279), when an outpost was set up to manage the trade of salt. Little took place for hundreds of years afterward, although 30 guards were stationed there in 1668.[3] A small coastal fort was established around 1810 after Chinese forces abandoned Tung Lung Fort.[4] In 1842, during Qing Emperor Daoguang's reign, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Nanjing. As a result, the Qing authorities felt it necessary to improve the fort to rule the area and check further British influence. The improvements, including the formidable defensive wall, were completed in 1847. The walled city was captured by rebels during the Taiping Rebellion in 1854, before being retaken a few weeks later.[3][5] The present walled city's "Dapeng Association House" forms the remnants of what was previously Lai Enjue's garrison.

1915 map of the Hong Kong region with the Kowloon Walled City listed as "Chinese Town" at the upper right-hand corner

The Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory of 1898 handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years, but excluded the walled city, which at the time had a population of roughly 700. China was allowed to continue to keep officials there as long as they did not interfere with the defence of British Hong Kong. The following year, the governor, Sir Henry Blake, suspected that the viceroy of Canton was using troops to aid resistance to the new arrangements. On 14 April 1899, British forces attacked the walled city, only to find the viceroy's soldiers gone, leaving behind only the mandarin and 150 residents.[3] The Qing dynasty ended its rule in 1912, leaving the walled city to the British.

Though the British claimed ownership of the walled city, they did little with it over the following few decades. The Protestant church[which?] established an old people's home in the old "yamen" (Chinese administrative office) as well as a school and an almshouse in other former offices. Aside from such institutions, however, the walled city became a mere curiosity for British colonials and tourists to visit; it was labelled as "Chinese Town" in a 1915 map. In 1933, the Hong Kong authorities announced plans to demolish most of the decaying walled city's buildings, compensating the 436 squatters that lived there with new homes. That same year in 1933, the Nationalist Chinese government protested against the plan, and claimed jurisdiction over the city.[6][7] The Nationalist Chinese government continued to make claims on its jurisdiction throughout 1935, 1936, and the first half of 1937, until the war between China and Japan started.[8]

By 1940, only the yamen, the school, and one house remained. During the World War II occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese occupying forces demolished the city's wall and used the stone to expand the nearby Kai Tak Airport.[3]

Urban settlement

An aerial view of Kowloon Walled City and the neighbouring Sai Tau Tsuen village in 1972

After Japan's surrender in 1945, China announced its intent to reclaim the walled city. In November 1946, Nationalist Chinese officials created the "Draft Outline Plan for Reinstatement of Administration" of the area, which included an office, schools, police, and other functions.[9] Refugees fleeing the Chinese Civil War post-1945 poured into Hong Kong, and 2,000 squatters occupied the walled city by 1947. After a failed attempt to drive them out in 1948, the British adopted a 'hands-off' policy in most matters concerning the walled city.[3] On 8 January 1948, the Nationalist Chinese government sent a memorandum to the British Ambassador, stating "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs now formally declare to the British Embassy that, in accordance with the provisions of the said Convention, the Chinese Government enjoys jurisdiction over the City of Kowloon and that they have no intention whatsoever of renouncing this jurisdiction."[8] The British Foreign Office, on 4 February 1948, considered a variety of solutions (including turning the site into a Nationalist Chinese Consulate-General), and ultimately recommended that the British "accept the principle of Chinese jurisdiction over Kowloon Walled City but the Chinese agree not to attempt to exercise that jurisdiction in practice."[8] Additionally, the British Foreign Office said that "A public garden controlled by the municipal authorities of Kowloon Leased territory offers such a solution and so would a Chinese consular compound, if the Chinese could first be induced to agree in principle to the appointment of a Consul General."[8]

Here, prostitutes installed themselves on one side of the street while a priest preached and handed out powdered milk to the poor on the other; social workers gave guidance while drug addicts squatted under the stairs getting high; what were children's games centres by day became strip-show venues by night. It was a very complex place, difficult to generalise about, a place that seemed frightening but where most people continued to lead normal lives. A place just like the rest of Hong Kong.

—Leung Ping-kwan, City of Darkness, p. 120[10]
The south side of the Kowloon Walled City in 1975. The elevation of the buildings begins to reach its maximum height.

In January 1950, a fire broke out that destroyed over 2,500 huts, home to nearly 3,500 families and 17,000 total people.[11] The disaster highlighted the need for proper fire prevention in the largely wooden-built squatter areas, complicated by the lack of political ties with the colonial and Chinese governments.[12] The ruins gave new arrivals to the walled city the opportunity to build anew, causing speculation that the fire may have been intentionally set.[12][13]

With no government enforcement from the Chinese or the British aside from a few raids by the Royal Hong Kong Police, the walled city became a haven for crime and drugs. It was only during a 1959 trial for a murder that occurred within the walled city that the Hong Kong government was ruled to have jurisdiction there. By that time, however, the walled city was virtually ruled by the organised crime syndicates known as triads.[3]

Beginning in the 1950s, triad groups such as the 14K and Sun Yee On gained a stranglehold on the walled city's numerous brothels, gaming parlours, and opium dens. The walled city had become such a haven for criminals that police would venture into it only in large groups.[14] It was not until 1973 and 1974, when a series of more than 3,500 police raids resulted in over 2,500 arrests and over 1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb) of seized drugs, that the triads' power began to wane. With public support, particularly from younger residents, the continued raids gradually eroded drug use and violent crime. In 1983, the district police commander declared the walled city's crime rate to be under control.[3]

One of the outer edges in 1991

The city also underwent massive construction during the 1960s, with developers building new modular structures above older ones. The city became extremely densely populated and "a world unto its own," an enclave,[15] with over 33,000 people in 300 buildings occupying little more than 7 acres (2.8 ha). As a result, the city reached its maximum size by the late 1970s and early 1980s; a height restriction of 13 to 14 storeys had been imposed on the city due to the flight path of planes heading toward Kai Tak Airport.[16] As well as limiting building height, the proximity of the airport subjected residents to serious noise pollution. Eight municipal pipes provided water to the entire structure, although more could have come from wells.[17] A few of the streets were illuminated by fluorescent lights, as sunlight rarely reached the lower levels due to the outstanding disregard to air rights within the city.[3] Although the rampant crime of earlier decades diminished in later years, the walled city was still known for its high number of unlicensed doctors and dentists who could operate there without threat of prosecution.[18][19]

Although the walled city was for many years a hotbed of criminal activity, most residents were not involved in any crime and lived peacefully within its walls. Numerous small factories and businesses thrived inside the walled city, and some residents formed groups to organise and improve daily life there.[20] An attempt by the government in 1963 to demolish some shacks in a corner of the city gave rise to an "anti-demolition committee" that served as the basis for a kaifong association. Charities, religious societies and other welfare groups were gradually introduced to the city. While medical clinics and schools went unregulated, the Hong Kong government provided some services such as water supply and mail delivery.[3]

Eviction and demolition

An alley in the city

The quality of life in the city—sanitary conditions in particular—remained far behind the rest of Hong Kong. The Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984 laid the groundwork for the city's demolition.[3] The mutual decision by the two governments to tear down the walled city was announced on 14 January 1987.[21] On 10 March 1987, following the announcement that the walled city would be converted to a park, the Secretary for District Administration formally requested the Urban Council to take over the site following demolition. Owing to the presence of numerous other green spaces in the area, the Urban Services Department doubted the need for "yet another park" from a planning and operations point of view, but the council agreed nonetheless to accept the government's proposal on the condition that the government bear the cost of park construction.[22][23]

The government distributed some HK$2.7 billion (US$350 million) in compensation to the estimated 33,000 residents and businesses in a plan devised by a special committee of the Hong Kong Housing Authority.[24] Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation and were forcibly evicted between November 1991 and July 1992.[25][26] While it was deserted, the empty city was used to film a scene in the 1993 movie Crime Story.[27]

After four months of planning,[28] demolition of the walled city began on 23 March 1993[18] and concluded in April 1994. Construction work on Kowloon Walled City Park started the following month.[29]

Current status as park

For details on the park itself, see Kowloon Walled City Park.
Aerial view of the Kowloon Walled City Park

Design and construction

The area where the walled city once stood is now Kowloon Walled City Park, adjacent to Carpenter Road Park.[30] The 31,000 m2 (330,000 sq ft; 7.7 acres) park was completed in August 1995 and handed over to the Urban Council. It was opened officially by Governor Chris Patten a few months later on 22 December.[31] Construction of the park cost a total of HK$76 million.[29]

The park's design is modelled on Jiangnan gardens of the early Qing Dynasty. It is divided into eight landscape features,[29] with the fully restored yamen as its centrepiece. The park's paths and pavilions are named after streets and buildings in the walled city.[32] Artefacts from the walled city, such as five inscribed stones and three old wells, are also on display in the park.[30] The park was designed by the Architectural Services Department, which won a "prestigious award" from the Central Society of Horticulture of Germany for the redevelopment.[33]

On a green lawn surrounded by a brick wall lie broken engraved stones and stone foundations.
The remnants of the city's South Gate and its entrance plaques

Components of the park include:

  • The Eight Floral Walks, each named after a different plant or flower[34]
  • The Chess Garden, featuring four 3-by-5-metre (9.8 by 16.4 ft) Chinese chessboards[35]
  • The Garden of Chinese zodiac, containing stone statues of the 12 Chinese zodiac animals[36]
  • The Garden of Four Seasons (named Guangyin Square after the small open area in the walled city), a 300 m2 (3,200 sq ft) garden with plants that symbolise the four seasons[37]
  • The Six Arts Terrace, a 600 m2 (6,500 sq ft) wedding area containing a garden and the Bamboo Pavilion[30]
  • The Kuixing Pavilion, including a moon gate framed by two stone tablets and the towering Guibi Rock, which represents Hong Kong's return to China[38]
  • The Mountain View Pavilion, a two-storey structure resembling a docked boat that provides a good view of the entire park[30][39]
  • The Lung Tsun, Yuk Tong, and Lung Nam Pavilions[40]
  • The yamen and the remains of the South Gate (see below).

Declared monuments

The front entrance of a building labelled "Almshouse" with a cannon in front of it.
The front of the restored yamen building with one of the original cannons
Children of early 20th-century Kowloon Walled City residents playing on the yamen cannons.

The Antiquities and Monuments Office conducted archaeological examinations as the walled city was being demolished, and several cultural remains were discovered.[41] Among them were the walled city's yamen and remnants of its South Gate, which were officially designated declared monuments of Hong Kong on 4 October 1996.[42]

The South Gate had originally served as the walled city's main entrance. Along with its foundation, other remains included two stone plaques inscribed with "South Gate" and "Kowloon Walled City" from the South Gate and a flagstone path that had led up to it. The foundations of the city's wall and East Gate were also discovered.[29] The Hong Kong government preserved the South Gate remnants next to a square in front of the yamen.[43]

The yamen building is made up of three halls. Originally the middle hall served the Assistant Magistrate of Kowloon's administrative office, and the rear block was his residence. After the government officials left the area in 1899, it was used for several other purposes, including an old people's home, a refuge for widows and orphans, a school, and a clinic. It was restored in 1996 and is now found near the centre of the park.[44] It contains a photo gallery of the walled city, and two cannon dating back to 1802 sit at the sides of its entrance.[32]

The city before demolition

Layout and architecture

Model of Kowloon Walled City located at the entrance of Kowloon Walled City Park

The walled city was located in what became known as the Kowloon City area of Kowloon. In spite of its transformation from a fort into an urban enclave, the walled city retained the same basic layout. The original fort was built on a slope[45] and consisted of a 2.6-hectare (6.4-acre) plot measuring about 210 by 120 metres (690 by 390 ft). The stone wall surrounding it had four entrances and measured 4 metres (13 ft) tall and 4.6 metres (15 ft) thick before it was dismantled in 1943.[4][46]

The Kowloon Walled City in 1989

Construction surged dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s, until the formerly low-rise city consisted almost entirely of buildings with 10 storeys or more (with the notable exception of the yamen in its centre).[16][21] However, due to the Kai Tak Airport's position 800 metres (0.50 mi) south of the city, buildings did not exceed 14 storeys.[47] The two-storey Sai Tau Tsuen settlement bordered the walled city to the south and west until it was cleared in 1985 and replaced with Carpenter Road Park.[48][49]

The city's dozens of alleyways were often only 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) wide, and had poor lighting and drainage.[50] An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels, which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire city without ever touching solid ground.[16] Construction in the city went unregulated, and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities.[51] Because apartments were so small—a typical unit was 23 m2 (250 sq ft)—space was maximised with wider upper floors, caged balconies and rooftop additions.[20][21][52] Roofs in the city were full of television antennas, clothes lines, water tanks, and rubbish, and could be crossed using a series of ladders.[53][54]

Demography

A street at the edge of the city at night in 1993

Kowloon Walled City's early population fluctuated between zero and a few hundred, and began growing steadily shortly after World War II.[citation needed] However, there is no accurate population information available for much of the walled city's later existence.[citation needed] Official census numbers estimated the walled city's population at 10,004 in 1971 and 14,617 in 1981[citation needed], but these figures were commonly considered[by whom?] to be much too low. Informal estimates, on the other hand, often mistakenly included the neighbouring squatter village of Sai Tau Tsuen.[50][55] Population figures of about 50,000 were also reported.[1]

A thorough government survey in 1987 gave a clearer picture: an estimated 33,000 people resided within the walled city. Based on this survey, the walled city had a population density of approximately 1,255,000 inhabitants per square kilometre (3,250,000/sq mi) in 1987,[21] making it the most densely populated spot in the world.[56]

Culture

A close-up of the walled city's mass of tall buildings
Numerous dental clinics at an edge of the walled city in 1991
A playground at the edge of the city

In response to difficult living conditions, residents formed a tightly knit community, helping one another endure various hardships.[57] Within families, wives often did housekeeping, while grandmothers cared for their grandchildren and other children from surrounding households.[58] The city's rooftops were important gathering places, especially for residents who lived on upper floors. Parents used them to relax, and children would play or do homework there after school.[59]

The yamen in the heart of the city was also a major social centre, a place for residents to talk, have tea or watch television, and to take classes such as calligraphy. The Old People's Centre also held religious meetings for Christians and others.[60] Other religious institutions included the Fuk Tak and Tin Hau temples, which were used for a combination of Buddhist, Taoist, and animist practices.[61]

Cultural memory

The absence of an administration and the physical and psychological isolation from the greater Hong Kong area produced a unique culture of both crime and community that existed only within the city.[62] The widespread criminal activity in the city did not apply exclusively to triads alone; police would also conspire with the triads to profit from the illicit trades happening within the city.[63] Both police and residents spoke of the endemic corruption that was rife within the city.[64] However, during the 70s greater police involvement helped to reduce the crime rate, and the city mostly became a haven for people hoping to avoid business regulations and taxes.[20] Thus, the city developed a form of "anarchic urbanism", in which the physical proximity led to a cultural interconnectedness and reliance between community residents, which has contributed to its modern appeal.[64]

While the city was shunned in its early existence, it has now become a point of pride for many Hong Kong residences alike.[48] The rising publicity around Hong Kong following the 1997 handover sparked a re-emergence in the public interest of Kowloon Walled City and its disappearance, and the cultural memory of the space has become more sanitised, with crime and corruption in the background.[65] In the modern era, the city has begun to be portrayed with a romantic dystopian identity, and many forms of modern media have borrowed the city's culture in their own works.[48] Kowloon Walled City has experienced a 'second life' in which many popular media and game outlets portray the city in a more nostalgic and romanticised version.[64]

Films

The Walled City of Kowloon has no visible wall around it, but it is as clearly defined as if there were one made of hard, high steel. It is instantly sensed by the congested open market that runs along the street in front of the row of dark run-down flats—shacks haphazardly perched on top of one another giving the impression that at any moment the entire blighted complex will collapse under its own weight, leaving nothing but rubble where elevated rubble had stood.

Many authors, filmmakers, game designers, and visual artists have used the walled city to convey a sense of oppressive urbanisation or unfettered criminality. In literature, Robert Ludlum's novel The Bourne Supremacy uses the walled city as one of its settings.[66] The City appears as a virtual reality environment (described by Steven Poole as an "oasis of political and creative freedom") in William Gibson's Bridge trilogy, and as a contrast with Singapore in his Wired article "Disneyland with the Death Penalty".[67][68] In the manga Crying Freeman, the titular character's wife travels to the walled city to master her swordsmanship and control a cursed sword.[69] The manga Blood+: Kowloon Nights uses the walled city as the setting for a series of murders.[70] The walled city finds an extensive mention in Doctor Robin Cook's 1991 novel Vital Signs. The filth, squalor and the crime-oriented nature of the area is described vividly when the characters Marissa and Tristan Williams pass by the back-lanes. The later part of episode 3 and episode 4 of the anime Street Fighter II V are set in the Kowloon Walled City, depicted as a dark and lawless area where Ryu, Ken and Chun-Li have to fight for their lives at every turn, being rescued by the police once they reach the walled city's limits.

The 1982 Shaw Brothers film Brothers from the Walled City is set in Kowloon Walled City.[71] The 1984 gangster film Long Arm of the Law features the walled city as a refuge for gang members before they are gunned down by police.[72] In the 1988 film Bloodsport, starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, the walled city is the setting for a martial arts tournament.[73] The 1992 non-narrative film Baraka features several highly detailed shots of the walled city shortly before its demolition. The 1993 film Crime Story starring Jackie Chan was partly filmed in the deserted walled city, and includes real scenes of building explosions.[27] A walled neighbourhood called the Narrows in the 2005 film Batman Begins was inspired by the walled city.[74] The 2006 Hong Kong horror film Re-cycle features a decrepit, nightmarish version of the walled city, complete with tortured souls from which the protagonist must flee.[75] The 2016 TVB martial arts drama A Fist Within Four Walls takes place in the triad-ridden walled city in the early 1960s.[76]

Hive of dream. Those mismatched, uncalculated windows. How they seemed to absorb all the frantic activity of Kai Tak airport, sucking in energy like a black hole.

Warehouse Kawasaki, a former Japanese game arcade with a Kowloon Walled City theme

Memoirs and autobiographies

A few of the people who spent time in Kowloon Walled City have written accounts of their experiences. Evangelist Jackie Pullinger wrote a 1989 memoir, Crack in the Wall, about her involvement in treating drug addicts within the walled city.[77] In his 2004 autobiography Gweilo, Martin Booth describes his exploration of the walled city as a child in the 1950s.[72] Gordon Jones, a District Officer of Kowloon City District at the time also published his recollections of the city during his time in office.[78]

Video games

Kowloon Walled City is depicted in several games, including Kowloon's Gate[72] and Shenmue II.[79] The game Stranglehold, a sequel to the film Hard Boiled, features a version of the walled city filled with hundreds of Triad members.[79] In the games Fear Effect and Fear Effect 2, photographs of the walled city were used as inspiration "for moods, camera angles and lighting."[80] Concept art for the MMORPG Guild Wars: Factions depicts massive, densely packed structures inspired by the walled city.[81] The pen-and-paper RPG Shadowrun and CRPG Shadowrun: Hong Kong include a crime-ridden, rebuilt version of the Walled City set in 2056.[82] The walled city also features in the 2010 game Call of Duty: Black Ops.[83] The upcoming video game Stray's environment is influenced by the walled city as well.[84]

Amusement arcade

A partial recreation of the Kowloon Walled City existed in the Warehouse Kawasaki, an amusement arcade that operated from 2009 to 2019 in the Japanese suburb of Kawasaki, Kanagawa. The atmosphere of the walled city was reflected in the arcade's narrow corridors, electrical wires, pipes, postboxes, sign boards, neon lights, frayed posters, and various other small touches.[85]

Works specifically documenting the walled city

Books and research papers

  • Girad, Greg; Lambort, Ian; Goddard, Charles (1993). City of Darkness – Life in Kowloon Walled City. Watermark. ISBN 978-1873200896. OCLC 767526480. OL 8653461M.
  • City of Darkness: Revisited, by Ian Lambot (writer, photographer) and Greg Girard (photographer), published by Watermark, 2014, ISBN 9781873200889 (revised edition of City of Darkness)
  • Kyūryūjō Tanbō Makutsu de Kurasu Hitobito: City of Darkness (九龍城探訪 魔窟で暮らす人々　City of Darkness, "Kowloon Walled City Exploration: People Who Live in the Devil's Den (City of Darkness)"), by Ian Lambot (writer, photographer) and Greg Girard (photographer), published by EastPress, 2004, ISBN 9784872574234 (Japanese edition of City of Darkness)
  • Daizukai Kyūryūjō (大図解九龍城, "Grand Kowloon Walled City Schematics"), by the Kyūryūjō Tankentai (the "Kowloon Walled City Exploration Team"), including Hitomi Terasawa (illustrator), Takayuki Suzuki (architect) and Hiroaki Kani (supervisor), published by Iwanami Shoten, 1997, ISBN 9784000080705
  • Kyūryūjōsai (九龍城砦, "Kowloon Walled City"), by Ryūji Miyamoto (photographer), Hiroshi Aramata (text contributor) and Ken'ichi Ōhashi (text contributor), published by Heibonsha, 1997, ISBN 9784582277364; Heibonsha, 1998, ISBN 9784582277364; Heibonsha, 1999, ISBN 9784582277364
  • Saigo no Kyūryūjōsai (最期の九龍城砦, "The End of Kowloon Walled City"), by Shintarō Nakamura, published by Shinpusha, 1996, ISBN 9784883066469
  • An Architectural Study on the Kowloon Walled City: Preliminary Findings, by Suenn Ho, published by Columbia University, 1992[ISBN missing]
  • Jiulong Cheng Zhai shihua (九龍城寨史話; 'Kowloon Walled City's History'), by Lu Jinzhe, published by Joint Publishing, 1997, ISBN 9789620406829
  • 九龍城寨：一個特殊社區的地理透視; 'Kowloon Walled City: A Geographical Perspective of a Special Community', by Wong Kwan-yiu et al., published by the Chinese University of Hong Kong – Department of Geography, 1992
  • FARMAX: Excursions on Density, by Winy Maas, Jacob van Rijs and Richard Koek (main contributors), published by 010 Publishers, 1998, ISBN 9789064502668; 010 Publishers, 2006, ISBN 9789064505874

Documentary films

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b Nosowitz, Dan (18 April 2013). "Life Inside The Most Densely Populated Place on Earth [Infographic]". Popular Science. Popular Science. Retrieved 13 April 2018. 1990 50,000 inhabitants
  2. ^ "Infographic: Life Inside The Kowloon Walled City". ArchDaily. 18 April 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Wilkinson, Julia (1993). "A Chinese Magistrate's Fort". City of Darkness: Life in Kowloon Walled City. pp. 60–71. ISBN 978-1-8732-0013-1.
  4. ^ a b Sinn, Elizabeth. "Kowloon Walled City: Its Origin and Early History" (PDF). Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 27: 30–31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
  5. ^ Li Long Lam, Excavation Report of Kowloon Walled City, Hong Kong Archived 27 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine(香港九龙寨城发掘简报)", in Kaogu, vol. 6, 2007.
  6. ^ Miners, N. J. (1982). "A Tale of Two Walled Cities: Kowloon and Weihaiwei". Hong Kong Law Journal. 12: 179.
  7. ^ "The National Archives – Historic Hong Kong documents | Gwulo: Old Hong Kong". gwulo.com. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  8. ^ a b c d Britain and China 1945–1950: Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series I, Volume 8, S.R. Ashton, G. Bennett, K. Hamilton, Routledge, 2013 p. 127[ISBN missing]
  9. ^ "The History of Planning for Kowloon City" (PDF). Planning Perspective.
  10. ^ Kwan, Leung Ping. "The Walled City: Our Place". City of Darkness: Life in Kowloon Walled City. pp. 120–23.
  11. ^ Smart 2006, p. 59
  12. ^ a b Smart 2006, pp. 65–67
  13. ^ Booth, Martin (14 November 2006). Golden Boy: Memories of a Hong Kong Childhood. St. Martin's Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-4668-1858-3.
  14. ^ Carney, John (16 March 2013). "Kowloon Walled City: Life in the City of Darkness". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
  15. ^ Harter, Seth (November 2000). "Hong Kong's Dirty Little Secret". Journal of Urban History. 27 (1): 92–113. doi:10.1177/009614420002700106. ISSN 0096-1442. S2CID 145574313.
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Sources

External media
Images
image icon Cross-section drawing of the City
image icon What's Left of the Kowloon Walled City (UrbanPhoto)
image icon Old and rare external shots of the City (blog post)
image icon Media related to Kowloon Walled City at Wikimedia Commons
image icon Media related to Kowloon Walled City Park at Wikimedia Commons
image icon "City of Anarchy", Infographic of Kowloon Walled City (SCMP News)
Video
video icon Video clip of the City (in Japanese)
Unofficial analyses:
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