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Ecological debt

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Wahu Kaara (Global justice activist / Kenya Debt Relief Network) spoke at the closing ceremony of Klimaforum09 - People's Climate Summit in Copenhagen December 2009.

Ecological debt refers to the accumulated debt of wealthier countries[vague][clarification needed] (from a defined date in the past until present) for having plundered poorer countries by the exploitation of their resources, the degradation of their natural habitat, the beggaring of local people and/or the free occupation of environmental space for waste discharge.[1] The definition in itself has varied over the years and several scholars have attempted a greater specification of the concept.

Within the ecological debt definition, two types of aspects are understood: the ecological damage caused over time by a country in one or other countries or to ecosystems beyond national jurisdiction through its production and consumption patterns; and the exploitation or use of ecosystems over time by a country at the expense of the equitable rights to these ecosystems by other countries.[2]

History

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Political dimension

Historical context

There have been several debates around the notion of ecological debt, and this is mostly because the concept arises from various social movements in response to the distributional injustice of climate change's consequences on the environment and people's livelihood.

Salleh, in particular, showed how the ecological debt manifested in the destruction of the environment and associated climate change the North has created is made possible through the process of modernization and capitalism.[3] The rise of the nature-culture divide that emerged due to rapid industrialisation is a perfect illustration of a human-nature dualism in which human being has the central role above everything else. The notion of humans being embedded in the ecosystem that they live in is crucial to the discipline of political ecology.[3]

In political ecology, which reconnects nature and the economy, ecological debt is crucial because it recognizes that colonization has not only resulted in a loss of culture, way of life, and language for Indigenous peoples, but it has shaped the world economy into one that monetizes and commodifies the environment.[4] For example, when the colonization of South America occurred over 500 years ago, European settlers brought with them their Eurocentric values, seeing themselves as better than and therefore entitled to the Indigenous people's knowledge and the land they lived on. In a perceived postcolonial world, large corporations and Western governments tend to present solutions to global warming by commodifying nature and hoping to make a profit out of it.[5] This better-than-thou attitude has created the conditions for global warming to occur, making the North’s ecological footprint soar,[6] while also constructing an ecological debt so large as to completely rid the entire Global South of their financial debt.

During the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, attending NGOs created the Debt Treaty, a document gathering all information to better define the ecological debt concept. They demanded compensation for damages over 500 years (1992 is exactly 500 years after the arrival of Columbus in North America). It was the first push back, reversing the stream, but it stayed as a draft paper not recognized by international institutions or lead countries at that time.

Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009 - Action Aid demonstration

Today

In the 2000s, two networks were created and still exist today: the Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA) which is a network of creditors that launched a campaign for the recognition of ecological debt, and the European Network for the Recognition of Ecological Debt (ENRED) which is a network of debtors.

During the COP in Copenhagen in December 2009, some governments from developing countries or countries most vulnerable to climate change consequences (such as Bolivia, Mauritania, Chad, or island countries as Maldives or Haiti) have argued that the principle of shared responsibility demands that rich nations or developed economies (such as the United States, some European countries, China) go beyond donations or adaptation credits and make reparations that recognize an ecological debt for excessive pollution over several decades. The top United States ambassador, Todd Stern, flatly rejected arguments by diplomats from these countries that the United States owed such a debt.[7]

The COP 21 in Paris brought minor progress with an increase in financial aid for developing countries. Although the goal was to prepare future action to be undertaken for adapting to climate change and consider loss and damages (especially displaced people) of some countries, no real action was adopted. There were no recognition of responsibilities but recommendations only.

Calculations

Climate debt

When discussing ecological debt, climate debt appears to be the only example of a scientific attempt to quantify the debt. It incorporates two different elements: the adaptation debt which is the cost to communities of adapting to climate damages they are not responsible for, and the consumption debt or emission's debt which is compensation due for emitting carbon in the present time. Emission debts should hypothetically be paid for by those countries that have over-emitted their fair-share of emissions. To determine this debt, an emissions or carbon budget can and is calculated, and distributed among countries.

Calculations

Academic work on calculations of the ecological debt came later. An article published in 2008 looked at the distribution of ecological impacts for various human activities.[8] Studies were also produced at regional level within countries, for instance for Orissa in India.[9]

As seen previously, calculation of the ecological debt implies various aspects related to political ecology. While calculating the amount of emissions, some scholars have disregard inequalities of emissions from the past whereas others have considered historical accountability.

In 2000, Neumayer calculated what he named the 'historical emissions debt', consisting on the difference in emissions of actual historical emissions (from a specific date in the past) and equal per-capita emissions (current emissions).[10]

Theoretically, it may be possible to put a money value on ecological debt by calculating the value of the environmental and social externalities associated with historic resource extraction and adding an estimated value for the share of global pollution problems borne by poor countries as the result of higher consumption levels in rich ones.[8] This includes efforts to value the external costs associated with climate change.[11]

In 2015, Matthews proposed a method to calculate the ecological debt, by looking at the accumulated `carbon debts' for each country.[12] The model uses historical estimates of national fossil fuel CO2 emissions[13] and population and this since 1960. Furthermore, it runs a comparison between temperature changes each year by each country's emissions compared to a proportional temperature change of each country's share of the world population (this same year). This gives the accumulated credits and debts related to a larger range of emissions and the 'climate debts' obtained would be the difference between the actual temperature change (caused by each country) and their per-capita share of global temperature change.[12]

Other scholars have proposed a different approach, a `modified equal shares' approach, that would consider each country's basic needs and would weight each ones' share of emissions.[14] However, this approach brings potential ethical and political difficulties to quantitatively defining what would thus be the equal shares.

Key debates

Although some recent emerging countries have participated in the increase of carbon emissions, the situation tend to stay uneven in-between developing and developed countries[15] regarding who is affected the most versus who pollutes the most.

Recent studies on ecological debt focus more on sub-topics as the notion of historical responsibility[16] (whether or not a country is considered ethically responsible or accountable for carbon emissions prior 1990, i.e. when global warming was universally recognized), the components of climate debt (see above sections), the difficulties in deciding when to start counting past emissions[17] and if this debate is slowing the implementation of programs or the legal and political consecration of the debt through treaties.[18]

Present key debates focus on how is the debt going to be paid back. First, some academia have pushed for financial debt cancellation rather than being paid for ecological damages and then paying back the country's national financial debt. However, financial debts were not even agree by people (in developing countries especially) in the first place, calling it the unfair "Volcker debt". Accepting this option could hold the risk of giving legitimize credits to these financial debts.[19] A second solution proposed is the Basic Income Guarantee (BIG) or the universal basic income. It consists on regular cash payments to everyone in a community (or country) and has proven a certain efficacy in some places around the world (like Namibia).[20]

Another debate addresses the fact that the ecological debt risks “commodifying nature” is exhausting ecosystem services. Researchers have tackled this risk by showing how it will expand the inclination of objectifying, monetizing and ultimately commodifying nature.[16] Moreover, the language of debt, repayments, credits and so forth is understood in Northern countries mostly, and is mostly focused on recognition of wrongdoing but not payment for loss of services for instance.[16]

Resources

Books

  • Ecological debt: the health of the planet and the wealth of nations, Andrew Simms, Pluto books, 2005
  • Larkin, Amy (2013). Environmental Debt: The Hidden Costs of a Changing Global Economy ISBN 9781137278555

Reports

See also

References

  1. ^ Donoso, A. (2015). "We are not debtors, we are creditors. In: Bravo, E., & Yánez, I. (Eds.), No more looting and destruction! We the peoples of the south are ecological creditors". Southern Peoples Ecological Debt Creditors Alliance (SPEDCA).
  2. ^ "Ecological debt". Retrieved 2020-10-07.
  3. ^ a b Salleh, A. (2009). Ecological debt: embodied debt. Eco-Sufficiency and Global Justice. London: Pluto Press.
  4. ^ Polanyi, Karl (1944). Chapter 3: Habitation versus Improvement. In The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 35–44.
  5. ^ Makki, Fouad (2014). "Development by Dispossession: Terra Nullius and the Social-Ecology of New Enclosures in Ethiopia". Rural Sociology. 79 (1): 79–103. doi:10.1111/ruso.12033.
  6. ^ Seager, J. (2009). The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World (4th ed.). New York, NY: Penguin.
  7. ^ Zeller Jr., Tom (December 5, 2009). "Negotiators at Climate Talks Face Deep Set of Fault Lines". New York Times. Retrieved February 22, 2018.
  8. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference srinivasan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ S. Khatua and W. Stanley, "Ecological Debt: a case study from Orissa, India" (2006) [1]
  10. ^ Neumayer, E. (2000). "In defence of historical accountability for greenhouse gas emissions" (PDF). Ecol. Econ. 33 (2): 185–192. doi:10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00135-X. S2CID 154625649.
  11. ^ Goeminne, G. & Paredis, E. (2010). "The concept of ecological debt: Some steps towards an enriched sustainability paradigm". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 12 (5): 691–712. doi:10.1007/s10668-009-9219-y. S2CID 154241874.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b Matthews, Damon (September 2015). "Quantifying Historical Carbon and Climate Debts among Nations". Nature Climate Change. 6: 60–64. Bibcode:2016NatCC...6...60M. doi:10.1038/nclimate2774.
  13. ^ Le Quéré, C.; et al. (2015). "Global Carbon Budget 2014". Earth System Science Data. 7 (1): 47–85. Bibcode:2015ESSD....7...47L. doi:10.5194/essd-7-47-2015.
  14. ^ Vanderheiden, S. (2008). Atmospheric Justice: A Political Theory of Climate Change. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199733125.
  15. ^ Matthews, H., Graham, T., Keverian, S., Lamontagne, C., Seto, D., & Smith, T. (2014). "National contributions to observed global warming". Environmental Research Letters. 9 (1): 014010. Bibcode:2014ERL.....9a4010D. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/1/014010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  17. ^ Fridahl, M., Friman, M., & Strandberg, G. (2014). "Historical responsibility for climate change: science and the science-policy interface". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 5 (3): 297–316. doi:10.1002/wcc.270.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Martinez-Alier, J. (2002). "Ecological debt and property rights on carbon sinks and reservoirs". Capitalism Nature Socialism. 13 (1): 115–119. doi:10.1080/104557502101245404. S2CID 154314395.
  19. ^ Ngosso, Thierry (2016). "Ecological Debt Versus Financial Debt In The African Context". The Critique. Archived from the original on February 28, 2018. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
  20. ^ Krahe, Dialika (2009-08-10). "A New Approach to Aid: How a Basic Income Program Saved a Namibian Village". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
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