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This article is about an outpost in space. For radio broadcasts sent from space, see space radio station. For stations named "Space", see Space (disambiguation).
International Space StationTiangong Space StationMirSkylabTiangong-2Salyut 1Salyut 2Salyut 4Salyut 6Salyut 7
The image above contains clickable links
The image above contains clickable links
Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.

A space station is a spacecraft capable of supporting a human crew in orbit for an extended period of time, and is therefore a type of space habitat. It lacks major propulsion or landing systems. An orbital station or an orbital space station is an artificial satellite (i.e. a type of orbital spaceflight). Stations must have docking ports to allow other spacecraft to dck to transfer crew and supplies. The purpose of maintaining an orbital outpost varies depending on the program. Space stations have most often been launched for scientific purposes, but military launches have also occurred.

As of 2022, there are two fully operational space stations in low Earth orbit (LEO) – the International Space Station (ISS) and China's Tiangong Space Station (TSS). While the ISS has been permanently inhabited since October 2000 with the Expedition 1 crews, the TSS will do so with the Shenzhou 14 crews in June 2022. The ISS is used to study the effects of spaceflight on the human body, as well as to provide a location to conduct a greater number and longer length of scientific studies than is possible on other space vehicles. China's Tiangong Space Station is scheduled to finish its phase 1 construction by the end of 2022 with the addition of two lab modules. India has also proposed to build a space station in the coming decades. There have been numerous decommissioned space stations, including USSR's Salyuts, Russia's Mir, NASA's Skylab, and China's Tiangong 1 and 2.

History

See also: List of space stations

Starting with the ill-fated flight of the Soyuz 11 crew to Salyut 1, all recent human spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations. The duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.75 days, set by Valeri Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995. As of 2021, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard Mir. The last military-use space station was the Soviet Salyut 5, which was launched under the Almaz program and orbited between 1976 and 1977.[1]

Early concepts

The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred in Edward Everett Hale's 1869 "The Brick Moon".[2] The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Hermann Oberth about two decades apart in the early 20th century.[3] In 1929 Herman Potočnik's The Problem of Space Travel was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create artificial gravity.[2] Conceptualized during the Second World War, the "sun gun" was a theoretical orbital weapon orbiting Earth at a height of 8,200 kilometres (5,100 mi). No further research was ever conducted.[4] In 1951, Wernher von Braun published a concept for a rotating wheel space station in Collier's Weekly, referencing Potočnik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.[3]

Salyut, Almaz and Skylab

Main articles: Salyut, Almaz, and Skylab
The first space station, Salyut-1, seen from departing Soyuz 11

In 1971, the Soviet Union developed and launched the world's first space station, Salyut 1.[5] The Almaz and Salyut series were eventually joined by Skylab, Mir, and Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants comprising a considerable part of the ISS, orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months, but rarely more than a year.

The U.S. Skylab station of the 1970s

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been used up, the station was abandoned.[5]

The first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The early Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were also known as Almaz stations.[6]

The civilian stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them; the Soyuz ferry could spend 90 days in space, at which point it needed to be replaced by a fresh Soyuz spacecraft.[7] This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. The American Skylab (1973–1979) was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never utilized. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be brought to aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "hard docked" with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof-of-concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.[6]

Mir and Apollo–Soyuz

Main articles: Mir and Apollo–Soyuz
Mir station seen in 1998

Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.[8]

International Space Station

Main article: International Space Station
View of the International Space Station in 2009

The ISS is divided into two main sections, the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) and the US Orbital Segment (USOS). The first module of the International Space Station, Zarya, was launched in 1998.[9]

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch on Proton, fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention.[10] Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009, RKK Energia was considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex after the end of mission is reached for the ISS.[11] However, in September 2017 the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.[12]

In contrast, the main US modules launched on the Space Shuttle and were attached to the ISS by crews during EVAs. Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.[13]

The Axiom Orbital Segment is a planned commercial segment to be added to the ISS starting in the mid 2020s. Axiom Space gained NASA approval for the venture in January 2020. Up to three Axiom modules will attach to the International Space Station. The first module could be launched no later than 2024 and will be docked to the forward port of Harmony, requiring relocation of the PMA-2. Axiom Space plans to attach up to two additional modules to its first core module, and send private astronauts to inhabit the modules. The modules could one day detach into the Axiom Station in a manner similar to Russia's proposed OPSEK.[14]

Tiangong program

Main articles: Tiangong space station and Tiangong program
Rendering of Tiangong Space Station in October 2021
Rendering of Tiangong Space Station in October 2021

China's first space laboratory, Tiangong-1 was launched in September 2011.[15] The uncrewed Shenzhou 8 then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewed Shenzhou 9 then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, followed by the crewed Shenzhou 10 in 2013. A second space laboratory Tiangong-2 was launched in September 2016, while a plan for Tiangong-3 was merged with Tiangong-2.[16]

In May 2017, China informed the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs that Tiangong-1's altitude was decaying and that it would soon reenter the atmosphere and break up.[16] The reentry was projected to occur in late March or early April 2018.[17] According to the China Manned Space Engineering Office, Tiangong-1 reentered over the South Pacific Ocean, northwest of Tahiti, on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.[18][19][20][21][22]

In July 2019 the China Manned Space Engineering Office announced that it was planning to deorbit Tiangong-2 in the near future, but no specific date was given.[23] The station subsequently made a controlled reentry on 19 July and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.[24]

The Tiangong Space Station (Chinese: 天宫; pinyin: Tiāngōng; lit. 'Heavenly Palace'), the first module of which was launched on 29 April 2021,[25] is in low Earth orbit, 340 to 450 kilometres above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42° to 43°. Its planned construction via 11 total launches across 2021-22 is intended to extend the core module with two laboratory modules, capable of hosting up to six crew.[26][27]

Planned projects

This section is an excerpt from List of space stations § Planned and proposed.[edit]

These space stations have been announced by their host entity and are currently in planning, development or production. The launch date listed here may change as more information becomes available.

Name Entity Program Crew size Launch date Planned Pressurized Volume Remarks
Haven-1 United States Vast Private
4
 August 2025[28] 80 m3[29] "Scheduled to be the world's first commercial space station, Haven-1 and subsequent human spaceflight missions will accelerate access to space exploration"[30]
LIFE Pathfinder United States Sierra Space Private
TBD
 2026 285 m3[31] "Before offering LIFE for Orbital Reef, though, the company is proposing to launch a standalone “pathfinder” version of LIFE as soon as the end of 2026".[32]
StarMax United States Gravitics Private
TBD
 2026[33] 400 m3

(14,126 cu ft)

"The StarMax module provides up to 400 cubic meters of usable habitable volume - nearly half the volume of the International Space Station in one module."
Axiom Station United States Axiom Space
 Private
TBD
 2027[34] ~666.8 m3

(~23,548 cu ft)

Private, free flying space station for commercial tourism and science activities.
Lunar Gateway United States NASA
ESA
Canada CSA
Japan JAXA 		Artemis
4
 2027[35] ≥125 m3 (4,400 cu ft) Intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings of NASA's Artemis program and follow-on human mission to Mars.
Orbital Reef United States Blue Origin
United States Sierra Space 		Private
10
 2027[36] 830 m3

(29,000 cu ft)

"Commercial station in LEO for research, industrial, international, and commercial customers."
Russian Orbital Service Station
 Russia Roscosmos Russia's next generation space station.
TBD
 2027[37] With Russia leaving the ISS programme sometime after 2024, Roscosmos announced this new space station in April 2021 as the replacement for that program.
Bharatiya Antariksha Station[38] India ISRO Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
3
 ~2028[38][39][40][41][42] ISRO chairman K. Sivan announced in 2019 that India will not join the International Space Station, but will instead build a space station of its own.[43] of 52 Tonne Mass [44] It is intended to be completed 5–7 years after the conclusion of the Gaganyaan program.[45]
Starlab United States NanoRacks
United States Voyager Space
European Union Airbus
CanadaMDA Space
JapanMitsubishi Corporation 		Private
4
 2028[46] ~450 m3

(~15892 cu ft)

"Commercial platform supporting a business designed to enable science, research, and manufacturing for customers around the world."

While originally Lockheed Martin was included in the project, as of 2024, it appears their primary role has been filled by Airbus, to provide the main habitat for the station.[47] As of 2024, they are no longer listed as a partner on Starlab's website.[48]

Haven-2 United States Vast Private
12
 2028 1160 m3

[29]

A planned successor to Haven-1. Vast CEO Max Hoat expressed hope that the first module of Haven-2 will be launched in 2028 if the station will be approved during the second phase of NASA's Commercial LEO Destinations program.[49]
Lunar Orbital Station[50]
 Russia Roscosmos
TBD
 after 2030[51]
Artificial Gravity Station United States Vast Private
40
 2035 1400 m3 [29]
Japanese Space Station Module (Mitsui) Japan JAXA|Mitsui & Co. TBA
TBD
 TBD Japan's spaceflight agency, JAXA, announced in July 2024 that has contracted Mitsui & Co. to develop a concept for a new space station module for eventual flight and docking to an American private space station as yet to be determined as of the initial announcement. [52][53][54]

Cancelled projects

Section 'Canceled projects' not found

Architecture

Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility. Both types can be refueled by cargo craft, such as Progress.[citation needed]

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control, attitude determination and control, orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.[citation needed]

Orbit and purpose

Materials

Space stations are often made from durable materials that have to weather space radiation, internal pressure, micrometeoroids, and thermal effects of the sun and cold temperatures for very long periods of time. They are typically made from stainless steel, titanium and high-quality aluminum alloys, with layers of insulation such as Kevlar as a ballistics shield protection.[55]

Construction

Habitability

Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body

The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water and food and the need to manage waste heat, and long-term ones such as weightlessness and relatively high levels of ionizing radiation. These conditions can create long-term health problems for space-station inhabitants, including muscle atrophy, bone deterioration, balance disorders, eyesight disorders, and elevated risk of cancer.[56]

Future space habitats may attempt to address these issues, and could be designed for occupation beyond the weeks or months that current missions typically last. Possible solutions include the creation of artificial gravity by a rotating structure, the inclusion of radiation shielding, and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently.[57]

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.[58]

Power

Communications

Astronauts

Operations

Launch vehicles

Many spacecraft are used to dock with the space stations.

Maintenance

Researches

Space tourism

Finance

Legacy

Technology spinoffs

See also: NASA spinoff technologies

International cooperation

Cultural impact

This section is an excerpt from Space stations and habitats in fiction.[edit]
"The Brick Moon" – an 1869 serial by Edward Everett Hale – was the first fictional space station or habitat.
The concepts of space stations and space habitats feature in science fiction. The difference between the two is that habitats are larger and more complex structures intended as permanent homes for substantial populations (though generation ships also fit this description, they are usually not considered space habitats as they are heading for a destination[59]), but the line between the two is fuzzy with significant overlap and the term space station is sometimes used for both concepts.[60][61] The first such artificial satellite in fiction was Edward Everett Hale's "The Brick Moon" in 1869,[60][62] a sphere of bricks 61 meters across accidentally launched into orbit around the Earth with people still onboard.[59][63]

Space habitat

Main articles: Space habitat and Space habitat (facility)
See also: Moonbase and Mars habitat

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Bibliography

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