Jump to content

Harran

Coordinates: 36°52′15″N 39°01′30″E / 36.87083°N 39.02500°E / 36.87083; 39.02500
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 132.219.142.10 (talk) at 11:20, 20 June 2022. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

"Carrhae" redirects here. For the battle, see Battle of Carrhae.
For other uses, see Harran (disambiguation).
Harran
حران
ܚܪܐܢ
Harran is located in Turkey
Harran
Harran
Location of Harran in Turkey
Harran is located in Near East
Harran
Harran
Harran (Near East)
Coordinates: 36°52′15″N 39°01′30″E / 36.87083°N 39.02500°E / 36.87083; 39.02500
Country Turkey
RegionSoutheastern Anatolia
ProvinceŞanlıurfa
Government
 • MayorMahmut Özyavuz (MHP)
 • KaymakamÖmer Faruk Çelik
Area
[1]
 • District1,053.78 km2 (406.87 sq mi)
Population
 (Template:Turkey district populations)Template:Turkey district populations
 • Urban
Template:Turkey district populations
 • District
Template:Turkey district populations
Time zoneUTC+2 (EET)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+3 (EEST)
Postal code
63xxx
Area code+(90)414
WebsiteŞanlıurfa Province Administrative District of Akçakale

Harran (Template:Lang-ar), also known as Carrhae, was a major ancient city in Upper Mesopotamia whose site is in the modern village of Harran, Turkey, 44 kilometers southeast of Şanlıurfa. The location is in the Harran district of Şanlıurfa Province.

The archaeological remains are in the ancient Harran, a major commercial, cultural, science and religious center first inhabited in the Chalcolithic Age (6th millennium BCE). The city was called Hellenopolis (Template:Lang-grc, meaning "pagan city" at the time) in the Early Christian period. In Movses Khorenatsi's and Mikayel Chamchian's History of Armenia, it is mentioned as being under the authority of prince Sanadroug, whose sovereign was Helena, queen of Adiabene, which was a Syriac Aramean state of Upper Mesopotamia.[2][3]

Names

History

The settlement that would become Harran began as a typical Halaf culture village established circa 6200 BCE as part of the spread of agricultural villages across Western Asia. From its location at the confluence of the Jullab and Balikh rivers it gradually grew in size until a period of rapid urbanization in the following Uruk period. During the Early Bronze Age (3000-2500 BCE) Harran grew into a walled city. The city-state of Harran was part of a network of city-states, called the Kish civilization, centered in the Syrian Levant and upper Mesopotamia. The rise of Harran closely mirrored the similar rise of its trade partners, Ebla, Ugarit, and Alalakh, in a process called secondary urbanization. Its life as a sovereign city-state came to an end when it was annexed into the Akkadian Empire and its successors, the Neo-Sumerian Empire and Old Assyrian Empire. After this it was again independent for a time, until it was abandoned in the Amorite expansion in 1800 BC. It was later rebuilt as the Assyrian city of Harrānu, meaning 'cross-roads' in the Akkadian language.

Bronze Age

The earliest records of Harran come from Ebla tablets (late 3rd millennium BCE).[12] From these, it is known that an early king or mayor of Harran had married an Eblaite princess, Zugalum, who then became "queen of Harran", and whose name appears in a number of documents.[citation needed] It appears that Harran remained a part of the regional Eblaite kingdom for some time thereafter.[citation needed]

Royal letters from the city of Mari on the middle of the Euphrates, have confirmed that the area around the Balikh river remained occupied in c. the 19th century BCE. A confederation of semi-nomadic Semitic tribes was especially active around the region near Harran at that time.[13]

A temple of the Assyrian-Babylonian moon god Sin was established sometime at the end of the Neo-Sumerian Empire (circa 2000 BCE). This temple was called the House of Rejoicing (Sumerian: E-hul-hul, Cuneiform:𒂍𒄾𒄾 E2.HUL2.HUL2). The ruins of this temple are currently located under the palace of Caliph Marwan II (744-750 CE). Although the exact date of establishment is uncertain, it may have begun as a satellite to the primary moon temple of Nanna in Ur, and then absorbed a refugee priesthood fleeing Ur during warfare in the Isin-Larsa period. Attestation of the temple existence first appears at time of Hammurabi, because he is recorded as signing a treaty there. In fact, Sin of Harran was guarantor of the word of kings between 1900 and 900 BCE, as his name is witness to the forging of international treaties.

Old Assyrian period

Harran and other major cities of ancient Syria
Harran beehive houses

By the 20th century BCE, Harran was established as a merchant outpost of the Old Assyrian Empire due to its ideal location. The community, well established before then, was situated along a trade route between the Mediterranean and the plains of the middle Tigris.[14] It lay directly on the road from Antioch eastward to Nisibis and Nineveh. The Tigris could be followed down to the delta to Babylon. The 4th-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (325/330–after 391) said, "From there (Harran) two different royal highways lead to Persia: the one on the left through Neo-Assyrian Adiabene and over the Tigris; the one on the right, through Assyria and across the Euphrates."[15] Not only did Harran have easy access to both the Assyrian and Babylonian roads, but also to north road to the Euphrates that provided easy access to Malatiyah and Asia Minor.

According to Roman authors such as Pliny the Elder, even through the classical period, Harran maintained an important position in the economic life of Assyria.[16]

In its prime Harran was a major Assyrian city which controlled the point where the road from Damascus joins the highway between the major Assyrian cities of Nineveh and Carchemish. This location gave Harran strategic value from an early date. Because Harran had an abundance of goods that passed through its region, it became a target for raids. In the 18th century, Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I (1813–1781 BCE) launched an expedition to secure the Harranian trade route from hostile forces.[14]

Hittite period

After the Suppiluliuma I–Shattiwaza treaty in the 14th century BCE between the Hittite Empire and Mitanni, Harran was burned by a Hittite army under Piyashshili during its invasion of Mitanni.

Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods

In the 13th century BCE, Assyrian king Adad-Nirari I reported that he re conquered the "fortress of Kharani" for Assyria and annexed it as a province.[17] It is frequently mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions as early as the time of Tiglath-Pileser I, about 1100 BCE, under the name Harranu (Akkadian harrānu, "road, path; campaign, journey"). Tiglath-Pileser had a fortress there, and mentioned that he was pleased with the abundance of elephants in the region.

10th-century BCE inscriptions reveal that Harran had some privileges of fiscal exemption and freedom from certain forms of military obligations. It was even termed the "free city of Harran". During the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Shalmaneser III restored the Temple of Sin in the 9th century BCE, and it was restored again by Ashurbanipal circa 650 BCE. However, in 763 BCE, Harran was sacked during a Harranian rebellion against the Assyrian king that resulted in the loss of Harran's privileges. It was not until Sargon II restored order in the late 8th century BCE that those privileges were restored.[18]

Neo-Babylonian period

During the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Harran became the stronghold and capital of its last king, Ashur-uballit II, who had retreated from Nineveh when it was sacked by Nabopolassar of Babylon and his Median and Scythian allies in 612 BCE. Harran was besieged and conquered by Nabopolassar and Cyaxares in 610 BCE. It was briefly retaken by Ashur-uballit II and his Egyptian allies in 609 BCE, before it finally fell to the Medes and Babylonians in 605 BCE after which Ashur-uballit II disappeared from history.[19][[[Siege of Harran#{{{section}}}|contradictory]]]

The last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabonidus, also originated from Harran, as substantiated by evidence from the temple stele of his mother Adad-Guppi, who was of local Assyrian origin. Nabonidus made a substantial expansion to the Temple of Sin, and it is from this phase of the temple's operation that it became a famous center of astronomy and knowledge in classical antiquity. The city became a bastion for the worship of the moon god Sin during the rule of Nabonidus in 556–539 BCE, much to the consternation of the city of Babylon in the south, where Marduk remained the primary deity.[20][better source needed]

Persian period

Harran became part of the Median Empire after the fall of Assyria, and subsequently passed to the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE. It became part of the Persian province of Athura, the Persian word for Assyria. The city remained in Persian hands until 331 BCE, when the soldiers of the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great entered the city.

Seleucid period

After the death of Alexander the Great on June 11, 323 BCE, the city was contested by his successors: Perdiccas, Antigonus Monophthalmus, and Eumenes visited the city, but eventually it became part of the realm of Seleucus I Nicator, of the Seleucid Empire, and capital of a province called Osrhoene (the Greek rendering of the old name Urhai). For one and a half centuries, the town flourished, and Osrhoene became an independent Neo-Assyrian state when the Persian Parthian Empire occupied Babylonia. The Parthian and Seleucid kings were both happy with a buffer state, and the Arabian Abgarid dynasty, technically a vassal of the Parthian "king of kings", ruled Osrhoene for centuries. The main language spoken in Oshroene was Aramaic and its inhabitants were regarded as Assyrians.

Roman–Sassanid period

In Roman times, Harran was known as Carrhae and was the location of the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE, in which the Parthians, commanded by general Surena, defeated a large Roman army under the command of Crassus, who was killed.

Centuries later, the emperor Caracalla was murdered here in 217 CE, probably at the instigation of Macrinus. In the 3rd century CE the region was a frontier province of the Roman Empire, being the location for major wars between Rome and Persia. The emperor Galerius was defeated nearby by the Parthians' successors, the Persian Sassanid Empire, in 296 CE.

Post–classical period

The city swapped ownership between the Sassanid Empire and the Roman Empire and the Romans' successor, the Byzantine Empire, on multiple occasions from the 4th century to the 6th century. The Sassanid general Shahrbaraz conquered Osrhoene one last time for the Sassanids around 610.[21] The city came under Byzantine control for a short time after the successful offensive of emperor Heraclius in the 620s, before it was taken over by the Rashidun Caliphate. In 640, Carrhae was conquered by the Muslim Arab general 'Iyāḍ b. Ghanm.[22]

Hermeticism

According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr,

"the Harranians who were the principal inheritors in the Middle East of what has been called "Oriental Pythagoreanism" and who were the guardians and propagators of Hermeticism in the Islamic world." They practiced "the religion of the heirs of the prophet Idris"[23]

However, Kevin van Bladel has extensively argued that the Sabians of Harran cannot be associated with Hermeticism in any meaningful way. Although they did regard Hermes Trismegistus as a prophet, and may even have thought of him as the founder of their sect, there is no evidence that they had knowledge of any Hermetic text, or were involved in the writing of such texts in any way.[24]

Umayyad rule

Ruins of the Harran University

Under the Umayyad Caliphate, Harran was administered as a major city of the al-Jazira province. During the reign of the last Umayyad caliph Marwan II (r. 744–750), Harran replaced Damascus as the capital of the caliphate.[25] Marwan himself resided in the city and his court was also established in Harran.[25] Some historians suggest that Marwan was favorable of Harran due to the anti-Christian posture of its pagan inhabitants.[26] The prominent ally of the Umayyads, the Banu Kalb of Syria, strongly resented Marwan's move and saw it as an abandonment of Syria. The Kalb subsequently revolted in 745 and Yazid ibn Khalid al-Qasri besieged Damascus, which prompted the caliph to return to the former capital. Finally, Marwan's forces defeated the rebels and recaptured Damascus and a few other cities of Syria.[27] According to Theophilus of Edessa (d. 785), Marwan was honored by Christians of Harran on his return to the new capital.[28]

Abbasid rule

In 750, the Abbasid Caliphate overthrew the Umayyads in the Third Fitna. Saffah (r. 750–754) was proclaimed caliph and he shifted the capital of the caliphate to the garrison city of Kufa. By the command of the second Abbasid caliph al-Mansur (r. 754–775), the walls of all cities of al-Jazira were destroyed, with the notable exception of Harran.[26] The fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809) personally visited Harran in c. 792.[29] Harun ordered the construction of a canal in Harran to acquire adequate water facilities.[26]

According a report cited by Ibn al-Nadim (c. 932 – c. 995), it was the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) who, while passing through Harran on his way to a campaign against the Byzantine Empire, forced the Harranians to convert to one of the religions of the ahl al-kitāb ('lit. 'People of the Book'), meaning Christians, Jews, Sabians or Zoroastrians. The pagan people of Harran identified themselves with the Sabians, an otherwise unknown sect mentioned in the Quran whose name was claimed by many different religious groups, in order to fall under the protection of Islam.[30]

There were many different religions in Harran during this period: apart from the pagan Sabians, there were Muslims, Christians, Jews, Samaritans, Zoroastrians, Manicheans, and other religious groups.[31]

During the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two prominent Sabian families from Harran who worked at the Abbasid and Buyid courts in Baghdad as court physicians and astronomers, among them the famous astronomer and mathematician Thabit ibn Qurra (c. 830–901).[32]

End of the Sabians

In 1032 or 1033, the temple of the Sabians was destroyed and the urban community extinguished by an uprising of the rural 'Alid-Shiite population and impoverished Muslim militias. According to Yahya of Antioch's history, Sabians converted to Islam in fear of the Numayrids.[33] In 1059–60, the temple was rebuilt into a fortified residence by the Numayrid prince Mani ibn Shabib. The Numayrids were an Arab tribe that dominated the Diyar Mudar (western Jazira) during the 11th century and had ruled Harran more or less continuously since 990.[34] The Zangid ruler Nur al-Din Mahmud transformed the residence into a strong fortress.

Crusades

During the Crusades, a decisive battle commonly known as the Battle of Harran was fought in the Balikh River valley on May 7, 1104. However, according to Matthew of Edessa, the actual location of the battle was two days away from Harran. Albert of Aachen and Fulcher of Chartres located the battleground in the plain opposite to the city of Raqqa. During the battle, Baldwin of Bourcq, Count of Edessa, was captured by troops of the Great Seljuq Empire. After his release, Baldwin became King of Jerusalem.

At the end of 12th century, Harran served together with Raqqa as a residence of Kurdish Ayyubid princes. The Ayyubid ruler of the Jazira, Al-Adil I, again strengthened the fortifications of the castle. In the 1260s, the city was completely destroyed and abandoned during the Mongol invasions of Syria. The father of the famous Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah was a refugee from Harran, settling in Damascus. The 13th-century Kurdish historian Abu al-Fida describes the city as being in ruins. The early 14th-century traveler Jordanus devotes Chapter 10 of his Mirabilis to "Aran", which most likely is Harran. The entire chapter reads: "Here Followeth Concerning the Land of Aran. Concerning Aran I say nothing at all, seeing that there is nothing worth noting."[35]

Modern Harran

Traditional mud brick "beehive" houses in the village of Harran, Turkey
Harran beehive houses
Centerpiece of the GAP project, Atatürk Dam

Harran is famous for its traditional "beehive" adobe houses, constructed entirely without wood. The design of these makes them cool inside, suiting the climatic needs of the region, and is thought to have been unchanged for at least 3,000 years. Some were still in use as dwellings until the 1980s. However, those remaining today are strictly tourist exhibits, while most of Harran's population lives in a newly built small village about 2 kilometres away from the main site.

At the historical site, the ruins of the city walls and fortifications are still in place, with one city gate standing, along with some other structures. Excavations of a nearby 4th century BCE burial mound continue under archaeologist Nurettin Yardımcı.

The demographics of the village today are made up mostly of ethnic Arabs. It is believed that the ancestors of the villagers were settled here during the 18th century by the Ottoman Empire. The women of the village often have tattoos and are dressed in traditional Bedouin clothes. There are still some Assyrian villages in the general area.

By the late 1980s, the large plain of Harran had fallen into disuse as the streams of Cüllab and Deysan, its original water supply, had dried up. However, the plain is now irrigated by the recent Southeastern Anatolia Project, allowing cotton and rice to be grown in the area once again.

Politics

Districts of Şanlıurfa

In the local elections of March 2019, Mahmut Özyavuz was elected Mayor.[36] Ömer Faruk Çelik was appointed District Governor as representative of the state.[37]

Religion

The city was the chief home of the Mesopotamian moon god Sin, under the Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians/Chaldeans and even into Roman times.

According to an early Arabic work known as Kitab al-Magall or the Book of Rolls (part of Clementine literature), Harran was one of the cities built by Nimrod, when Peleg was 50 years old. The Syriac Cave of Treasures (c. 350) contains a similar account of Nimrod's building Harran and the other cities, but places the event when Reu was 50 years old. The Cave of Treasures adds an ancient legend that not long thereafter, Tammuz was pursued to Harran by his wife's lover, B'elshemin, and that he (Tammuz) met his fate there when the city was then burnt.

The pagan residents of Harran also maintained the tradition well into the 10th century AD,[citation needed] of being the site of Tammuz' death, and would conduct elaborate mourning rituals for him each year, in the month bearing his name.

The Christian historian Bar Hebraeus (13th century), mentions in his Chronography that Harran had been built by Cainan (the father of Abraham's ancestor Shelah in some accounts), and had been named for another son of Cainan, called Harran.

Sin's temple was rebuilt by several kings, among them the Assyrian Assur-bani-pal (7th century BCE) and the Neo-Babylonian Nabonidus (6th century BCE).[38][39] Herodian (iv. 13, 7) mentions the town as possessing in his day a temple of the moon.

Harran was a centre of Syriac Christianity from early on, and was the first place where purpose-built churches were constructed openly. However, many people of Harran retained their ancient pagan faith during the Christian period, and ancient Mesopotamian/Assyrian gods such as Sin and Ashur were still worshipped for a time.

Carrhae was the seat of a Christian diocese before the First Council of Nicaea of 325, which was attended by its bishop Gerontius. In 361, its bishop Barses was transferred to Edessa, the capital of the Roman province of Osrhoene and therefore the metropolitan see of which the bishopric of Carrhae was a suffragan. The names of another eleven bishops of Carrhae, including that of Abraham of Carrhae, are known from then down to Theodore Abu Qurrah, bishop of Carrhae from before 787 to after 813, and the writer of many treatises in Syriac and Arabic.[40][41] After him, the see passed into the hands of Non-Chalcedonian Jacobite bishops, of whom Michael the Syrian names seventeen who lived between the 8th and the 12th century.[42] No longer a residential bishopric, Carrhae is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.[43]

Harran in scriptures

Abraham departs out of Haran by Francesco Bassano
Main article: Harran in the Bible

Harran is, by virtually all scholars, associated with the biblical place Haran (Hebrew: חָרָן, transliterated: Charan). Prior to Sennacherib's reign (704–681 BCE), Harran rebelled against the Assyrians, who reconquered the city (see 2 Kings 19:12 and Isaiah 37:12) and deprived it of many privileges – which King Sargon II later restored.

Biblical Haran was where Terah, his son Abram (Abraham), his nephew Lot, and Abram's wife Sarai settled en route to Canaan, coming from Ur of the Chaldees (Genesis 11:26–32). The region of this Haran is referred to variously as Paddan Aram and Aram Naharaim. Genesis 27:43 makes Haran the home of Laban and connects it with Isaac and Jacob: it was the home of Isaac's wife Rebekah, and their son Jacob spent twenty years in Haran working for his uncle Laban (cf. Genesis 31:38&41).

Very little is known about the pre-medieval levels of Harran,[44] especially for the patriarchal times. See Lloyd and Brice.[45]

Archaeology

T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") surveyed the ancient Harran site. Decades later, in 1950, Seton Lloyd conducted a three-week archaeological survey there.[46] An Anglo–Turkish excavation was begun in 1951, ending in 1956 with the death of D. S. Rice.[47] Another dig occurred in 1959.[48]

"The grand Mosque of Harran is the oldest mosque built in Anatolia as a part of the Islamic architecture. Also known as the Paradise Mosque, this monument was built by the last Ummayad caliph Mervan II between the years 744–750. The entire plan of the mosque which has dimensions of 104×107 m, along with its entrances, was unearthed during the excavations led by Dr Nurettin Yardimer since 1983. The excavations are currently being carried out also outside the northern and western gates. The grand Mosque, which has remained standing up until today, with its 33.30 m tall minaret, fountain, mihrab, and eastern wall, has gone through several restoration processes".[49]

Excavations in Harran from 2012 to 2013 have focussed on the walls, the mound in the centre of the city and the Castle (kale). In 2012 and 2013, the Şanlıurfa Museum Directorate, with Professor Mehmet Önal (Professor of Archaeology at Harran University) acting as consultant, carried out excavation works for restoration purposes on the western part of the city wall, uncovering the walls, towers and bastions. In excavations in the northern part of the Castle, a gallery and crenellated corridor were discovered on the west side. Near the south-east gate, a Greek inscription was found set in a wall and the remains of an inscribed pink marble ambo were found in the spolia infill of a wall in of the main west entrance-tower. In 2014, following a decision of the Council of Ministers and courtesy of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, further excavation work was conducted, again under the direction of Professor Önal. In these works, near Harran's Great Mosque, the Bazaar Bathhouse,[50] the Eastern Bazaar,[51] the Vaulted Road Bazaar, Public Toilets and a perfumery shop and workshop were uncovered.[52] In the Eastern Bazaar many fragments of glass lamps, mortar and fallen shelves were found in one shop, while in another scales, weights and metal artifacts were recovered and in the perfumery hundreds of sphero-conical vessels were found, having fallen from the shelves. In 2016, excavations were carried out on the city wall (west of the southern, "Raqqa" Gate), revealing part of the wall and leading to the discovery of a broken statue of a woman with a Syriac inscription and a male relief, both used as spolia in the wall. In the 2014–2016 excavations carried out in the west side of the Castle, a crenellated corridor belonging to a second defense system adjacent to the wall of the Castle (between the polygonal and rectangular towers) was uncovered. The excavations in 2017–2018 in the southern part of the Castle located its bathhouse on the second storey.[53] The bathhouse is well preserved, with a cold room (frigidarium), dressing room, warm room (tepidarium), hot room (caldarium), hypocaust and furnace (praefurnium). Excavations were also carried out on the north-west of the mound at the centre of the site, where houses of the Zengid and Ayyubid periods, pottery, coins etc. were found in the upper layers, and mudbrick walls, figurines and pottery sherds belonging to the Bronze Age in the lower layers. On the east of the mound, a cuneiform brick of Iron Age date was found in the upper layers and mud-brick walls of the Bronze Age in the lower layers, as well as the skeletons of a woman and children, terra-cotta figurines, Chalcolithic stamp seals, ceramic pieces, etc. In 2019, a hall to the north of the Castle bathhouse and another crenellated corridor in front of the south-east gate were partially exposed. The excavations planned for 2020 will focus on the Castle, eastern part of Great Mosque and the central mound.

Notable people

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Area of regions (including lakes), km²". Regional Statistics Database. Turkish Statistical Institute. 2002. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  2. ^ Isavertenc̣, Yakobos. Armenia and the Armenians, Volume 2. Armenian Monastery of St. Lazaro. p. 17.
  3. ^ Chamchian, Mikayel (1827). History of Armenia. Bishop's College Press. p. 110.
  4. ^ Homonym of the term for "caravan"; 𒄯𒊏𒀭 - harrân
  5. ^ Maspero, Gaston. History of the Ancient Peoples of the Classic East, Volume 2.
  6. ^ David Noel Freedman et al., Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible s.v. Haran
  7. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, s.v. Ḥarrān
  8. ^ Abramovitch, Henry Hanoch (December 22, 1993). The First Father: Abraham : the Psychology and Culture of a Spiritual Revolutionary. UPA. p. 50. ISBN 978-0819190277.
  9. ^ Edward Hayes Plumptre, Charles John Ellicott (ed.). The First Book of Moses, Called Genesis. Cassell & Company. p. 169.
  10. ^ L. Visotzky, Rabbi Burton (1996). The Genesis of Ethics: How the Tormented Family of Genesis Leads Us to Moral Development. ISBN 9780517702994.
  11. ^ Tahir Sezen, Osmanlı Yer Adları (Alfabetik Sırayla), T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Arşivleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Yayın Nu 21, Ankara, p. 223.
  12. ^ Holloway, Steven W. Aššur is King! Aššur is King! – Religion in the Exercise of Power in the Neo-Assyrian Empire, BRILL, 2002, ISBN 90-04-12328-8, p.391
  13. ^ G. Dossin, "Benjamites dans les Textes de Mari, " Melanges Syriens Offerts a M. Rene Dussaud (Paris, 1939), 986
  14. ^ a b Green 1992, pp. 19–20.
  15. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, R.G., XXIII.3.1
  16. ^ Pliny, Naturalis Historia, XII. 40
  17. ^ S. Smith, Babylonian Historical Texts (London, 1924), p.39
  18. ^ Smith, Babylonian Historical Texts, p.39
  19. ^ A. K. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles, New York, 1975, 96 (Fall of Nineveh chronicle).
  20. ^ "Unpublished works – Alberto Fratini". Alberto Fratini (in Italian). Retrieved 2017-12-25.
  21. ^ G. Geatrex, S.N.C.Lieu (ed.). The Roman Eastern Frontiers and the Persian Wars – Part II AD 363–630, Rootledge, 2002, pp. 185–186
  22. ^ Kaegi, Walter (1992). Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests, Cambridge University Press, 2005 (digital edition), p. 172
  23. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1964). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of nature and methods used for its study by the Ihwan Al-Safa, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 34. LCCN 64-13430. OCLC 352677.
  24. ^ Van Bladel 2009.
  25. ^ a b Blankinship 1994, p. 51.
  26. ^ a b c Green 1992, p. 95.
  27. ^ Gil 1997, p. 87.
  28. ^ Hoyland 2011, p. 253.
  29. ^ Bacon 1963, p. 212.
  30. ^ Van Bladel 2009, p. 66.
  31. ^ Van Bladel 2009, p. 66, note 8.
  32. ^ De Blois 1960–2007; Roberts 2017.
  33. ^ Al-Antaki, Yahya. History of Yahya of Antioch.
  34. ^ S. Heidemann (2005). "Numayrid ar-Raqqa". In Urbain Vermeulen, J. van Steenbergen (ed.). Egypt and Syria in the Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk Eras IV. Peeters. pp. 89–100. ISBN 9789042915244.
  35. ^ Yule 1863, p. 50.
  36. ^ Şafak, Yeni (2019-07-11). "Şanlıurfa Harran Seçim Sonuçları – Harran Yerel Seçim Sonuçları". Yeni Şafak (in Turkish). Retrieved 2019-11-07.
  37. ^ "Harran Kaymakamlığı". www.harran.gov.tr. Retrieved 2019-11-07.
  38. ^ H. W. F. Saggs, Neo-Babylonian Fragments from Harran, Iraq, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 166–169, 1969
  39. ^ C. J. Gadd, The Harran Inscriptions of Nabonidus, Anatolian Studies, vol. 8, pp. 35–92, 1958
  40. ^ /Michel Lequien, Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus, Paris 1740, Vol. II, coll. 973–978
  41. ^ Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae, Leipzig 1931, p. 437
  42. ^ Revue de l'Orient chrétien, VI (1901), p. 197.
  43. ^ Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 ISBN 978-88-209-9070-1), p. 838
  44. ^ Bienkowski & Millard. Dictionary of the ancient Near East (ISBN 0-8122-3557-6, ISBN 978-0-8122-3557-9), 2000, p.140
  45. ^ Alexander & Baker. Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, (ISBN 0-8308-1781-6, ISBN 978-0-8308-1781-8) 2003, p. 379
  46. ^ Seton Lloyd and William Brice, Harran, Anatolian Studies, vol. 1, pp. 77–111, 1951
  47. ^ David Storm Rice, "Medieval Harran. Studies on Its Topography and Monuments I", Anatolian Studies 2:36–84, 1952
  48. ^ [1] British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara – Harran Excavations
  49. ^ Official noticeboard displayed on site
  50. ^ Önal 2019a, pp. 325–360.
  51. ^ Önal 2019b, pp. 299–324.
  52. ^ Önal 2019c, pp. 361–418.
  53. ^ Önal 2019d, pp. 637–641, fig. 2, pl. 2.

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Harran, Şanlıurfa.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Harran&oldid=1094040506"