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Education policy of the United States

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The education policy of the United States is the set of objectives of the federal government to support education in the United States. Federal laws provide funding and enforce regulations for elementary, secondary, and post-secondary education. The Department of Education serves as the primary government organization responsible for enacting federal education policy in the United States.

Policy development

The Lyndon Baines Johnson Department of Education Building

The Constitution of the United States does not mention education, and the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution has been interpreted to give authority over education to the states.[1] Regulation and funding of education is primarily handled by state and local governments, and the federal government provides only 8% of K-12 education funding in the United States.[2] Congress does not have direct authority over education, so federal education policy is enforced by requiring compliance in order to receive federal funding. As a result, independent schools are not subject to federal education policy unless they are recipients of federal funding.[3] In some cases, federal court rulings may influence education policy by striking down certain practices as unconstitutional. Schools in Washington, D.C. operate under the jurisdiction of the federal government.

The Department of Education carries out the education policy of the United States. The stated mission of the department is to "promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access".[2] The existence of the Department of Education is controversial, with notable Republicans such as Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump criticizing it for expanding the federal government and the Republican Party platform at times calling for its abolition.[4] Other executive departments also contribute to education. The Department of Defense Education Activity and the Bureau of Indian Education operate federally run school systems.[5][6] Within the Department of State, the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs facilitates student exchange programs for foreign students to study in the United States and American students to study abroad.[7]

History

President Johnson at the signing of the ESEA with his childhood schoolteacher. (1965)
See also: History of education in the United States

Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was responsible for overseeing the territories of the United States. Under this authority, the Congress passed the earliest national laws addressing education. The Land Ordinance of 1785 set aside land for the construction of schools in the west, and the Northwest Ordinance authorized the Northwest Territory to construct schools.[1]

The Department of Education was first established in 1867 to collect statistics on education in the United States, though it was demoted to the Office of Education and moved into the Department of the Interior the following year. The Morrill Act of 1890 authorized the office to administer support for land-grant universities. The Smith–Hughes Act of 1917 and the George–Barden Act of 1946 authorized federal funding for vocational training in high schools. The Lanham Act of 1941, the G.I. Bill of 1944, and the Impact Aid laws of 1950 provided educational benefits for American citizens and communities affected by World War II.[2][8] The National School Lunch Act of 1946 provided assistance for students to obtain school meals. In 1946, President Truman assigned a commission to write the first federal education report, the Higher Education for American Democracy report.[citation needed]

Prior to 1954, schools were often segregated by race in the United States, and the Supreme Court had ruled segregation constitutional in the 1896 decision Plessy v. Ferguson. In the mid-20th century, the Supreme Court's stance began to change and it delivered a series of rulings that limited the constitutionality of segregation. In 1954, segregation in public schools was struck down entirely with Brown v. Board of Education. This decision faced strong backlash in southern states, and President Eisenhower established a military presence in Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce desegregation of public schools. Desegregation efforts continued to be enforced by the federal government through legal action for several decades afterward.[9] The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned racial discrimination in any program receiving federal funding and provided enforcement for the desegregation of public schools.[10]

Following the launch of Sputnik 1, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act of 1958 to provide funding to schools in order to compete with the Soviet Union.[2] The Great Society program and the war on poverty resulted in further expansions to federal education policy and new federal education programs during the 1960s. The Higher Education Act of 1965 was passed to increase funding for universities and help disadvantaged students afford tuition.[11] The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was passed to overhaul federal oversight of K-12 education in the United States, providing federal funding to support disadvantaged students and hire more qualified teachers.[12][13] The Elementary and Secondary Education Act was further modified by the Bilingual Education Act of 1967.[14] The Education Amendments of 1972 made several changes to the American education system, including the implementation of Title IX, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in schools that receive public funding.[15] The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act was passed in 1974 to protect student privacy. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act was passed in 1975 to provide equal access to education for students with physical and mental disabilities, and it was modified by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990.

The Department of Education was reestablished and given cabinet status in 1980.[2] Its creation was criticized by then-candidate Ronald Reagan during the 1980 presidential election.[4] The Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 modified the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, deregulating and reducing federal funding for education.[16] In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education produced the report A Nation at Risk, outlining issues with the American school system and increasing demand for education reform.[17] The Improving America's Schools Act of 1994 further reformed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. In 2001, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act was updated with the No Child Left Behind Act. This amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act established national requirements for curriculum standards and required standardized testing in schools to measure student performance.[18] Following strong backlash, the No Child Left Behind Act was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015.[19]

Elementary and secondary education

President Obama at the signing of the ESSA. (2015)

Elementary and secondary education in the United States is governed by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and its subsequent amendments. The largest component of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act is Title I, which provides federal funding for schools in low income areas. Other titles in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act provide for libraries, instructional materials, teachers, educational research and development, and administrative spending for state education agencies.[12][13] Under the Bilingual Education Act, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act also provides support for students of limited English proficiency.[14]

Since 2015, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act has operated under the Every Student Succeeds Act. This revision of the act continues to provide financial assistance for underprivileged students, requires academic standards designed for college and career preparation, and provides support to increase access to preschool. It also repeals the standardized testing requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act, replacing it with a standardized testing system that gives more authority to state education administrations.[20]

Child care

The Office of Child Care is responsible for overseeing federal child care policy in the United States, authorized under the Child Care and Development Block Grant Act of 1990 and subsequent amendments. It funds early care and after school programs by providing grants to state governments through the Child Care and Development Fund. In 2021, the fund provided $9.5 billion for child care programs. The Office of Child Care also implements health and safety standards, eligibility policies, and quality improvement efforts for child care programs.[21] The federal government also provides for several early learning programs. Head Start programs provide child care services for children up to age five in low-income families.[22] Nita M. Lowey 21st Century Community Learning Centers provide after-school programs in low income areas.[23]

Previously, child care had been provided by the Emergency Nursery Schools program as part of the Works Progress Administration of the New Deal, implemented in 1933. These nursery schools provided child care and educational services for the children of unemployed parents. Federal child care was expanded in 1954 when child care was made tax deductible. The Comprehensive Child Development Act was passed in 1971 to implement a national child care system, but it was vetoed by President Richard Nixon.[24]

Equal access

See also: Educational inequality in the United States

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in schools.[10] Schools in the United States were racially segregated until the mid-20th century. The Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation violated the rights guaranteed by the Constitution in Brown v. Board of Education, overturning the 1896 decision Plessy v. Ferguson, which had allowed segregation under a doctrine of separate but equal.[9] The Civil Rights Act of 1964 granted the federal government additional powers to enforce desegregation of schools.[10] Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 guarantees women equal access to all educational programs that receive federal funding.[15] The Bureau of Indian Education is responsible for overseeing education in Indian reservations.[25] The Supreme Court ruled that English language learners are entitled to language assistance under the Civil Rights Act in the 1974 case Lau v. Nichols, and this right was codified in the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974.[26]

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act governs protections and accommodations for students with disabilities in public schools. Students with disabilities are entitled to the least restrictive environment, with more restrictive measures such as separate classes or schooling for the disabled limited to when it is necessary. Mechanisms guaranteed to students with disabilities include Individualized Education Programs that customize students' education to fit individual needs and Free Appropriate Public Education that provides additional educational services when necessary. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act also entitles students a fair evaluation process to determine proper placement. Parents are entitled under the act to be informed about and provide input regarding their child's accommodations.[27] Grants authorized under this act are processed through the Office of Special Education Programs.[28] The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act has been in effect since 1990. It succeeded the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which had been enacted in 1975. Students with disabilities are also guaranteed protection in public schools through Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act.[29]

Funding

See also: Public school funding in the United States

The federal government has provided funding for schools through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act since its enactment in 1965. Title I of the act provides for federal funding of schools in low income areas. In 2011, Title I made up 43% of federal elementary and secondary education spending, and the majority of school districts receive Title I funding.[13] As of 2021, federal funding pays for about 8% of all expenses in primary and secondary education. Federal funding is provided by several government agencies, including the Department of Education, the Head Start program of the Department of Health and Human Services, and the school lunch program of the Department of Agriculture.[2]

Religion

The presence of religion in public schools is governed by the First Amendment. Under the First Amendment, public schools may neither enforce nor prohibit religious activities and practices. Students and teachers are guaranteed the right to practice their religion in any way that does not interfere with schooling. The Equal Access Act guarantees religious student groups the same rights and permissions as secular student groups.[30] The teaching of creationism was found to be unconstitutional in the 1987 case Edwards v. Aguillard.[31]

School prayer and school Bible readings have been the subject of much debate in education policy. The court ruled that public schools cannot lead students in prayer in the 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, and that they cannot lead Bible readings in the 1963 case Abington School District v. Schempp.[32][33] This restriction was extended to student-lead prayers in the 2000 case Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe.[34] A School Prayer Amendment has been proposed many times in Congress since the Engel v. Vitale ruling.[35]

Safety

School safety emerged as a policy area in the 1970s, during a period of rising youth crime. The Drug Free Schools and Communities Act was passed in 1986 to create drug prevention programs in schools, and a 1992 re-authorization of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act created programs to prevent gang membership among students. Several school safety laws were passed in 1994, including the Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994, the Safe Schools Act, and the Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act, all of which set restrictions on prohibited items or provided support for schools to enforce safety measures. In 1998, the Safe Schools Initiative was created, including the COPS in Schools program and the Safe Schools/Healthy Students Initiative. The Secure Our Schools program was launched in 2001 to update school security technology, and Project Sentry was launched in 2002 to limit juvenile access to firearms. The Every Student Succeeds Act consolidated school safety grant programs and eliminated grants that were not receiving federal funding.[36] The STOP School Violence Act was passed in 2018. The Bipartisan Safer Communities Act was passed in 2022

Standards

The federal government does not maintain national academic standards or a nationwide curriculum. The Department of Education is legally prohibited from creating any program that directs the curriculum of schools. The department does conduct the National Assessment of Educational Progress to monitor the progress of educational standards in the United States. All other standardized tests are organized by state governments or private entities.[37] The No Child Left Behind Act required each state to implement a standardized test program in 2001, and this requirement was reauthorized by the Every Student Succeeds Act with looser requirements in 2015.[38]

Students' rights

Students retain the right to freedom of speech while in school. The Supreme Court affirmed that this right exists so long as it does not cause a "substantial disruption" in the 1969 case Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.[39] It ruled that this protection does not extend to vulgar speech in the 1986 case Bethel School District v. Fraser or the promotion of drug use in the 2007 case Morse v. Frederick.[40][41] The right to free speech protects students from dress codes used to stifle specific viewpoints or disproportionately punish students for their beliefs. Schools also cannot punish students for speech that takes place outside of school and is unrelated to school.[42] Schools may censor content in school projects, such as student publications, as found in the 1988 case Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier.[43]

Students also retain Fourth Amendment rights while in school. The Supreme Court affirmed that students possess freedom from unreasonable search and seizure in the 1985 case New Jersey v. T. L. O, but a reasonable search may take place at the lower a standard of reasonable suspicion.[44] The court also ruled that drug testing in extracurricular activities is legal in the 1995 case Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton and the 2002 case Board of Education v. Earls.[45][46] Privacy of educational records is protected by the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act. The federal government does not prohibit school corporal punishment, and the Supreme Court ruled that states may permit it in the 1977 case Ingraham v. Wright.[47]

Higher education

Campus of the federally run United States Military Academy

Federal higher education policy is primarily governed by the Higher Education Act of 1965 and its subsequent amendments. Universities in the United States are typically run by state governments or privately owned, and federal involvement is limited. Federal academies are run directly by the federal government, and the United States service academies are organized as executive agencies within the government. Universities located in Washington, D.C. are federally chartered.

Under the Higher Education Act, the federal government provides financial support for qualifying institutions and students.[11] The Federal Student Aid office is responsible for financial support programs, and it provides student financial aid in the form of grants, scholarships, loans, and work-study jobs for qualifying students.[48] G.I. bills, such as the Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance Act of 2008 and the Forever GI Bill, provide financial aid for military veterans. Pell Grants provide payments for low-income students. The FAFSA form is used by students seeking financial aid to determine eligibility.

In 1978, racial quotas in universities were found to be unconstitutional in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke.[49] In 1982, single-sex admissions were found to be unconstitutional in Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan.[50] The Clery Act of 1990 requires all institutions receiving financial aid to report on crime statistics on campus.[51] In 1995, excluding religious groups while funding secular groups was found to be unconstitutional in Rosenberger v. University of Virginia.[52]

References

  1. ^ a b Hornbeck, Dustin (April 26, 2017). "Federal role in education has a long history". The Conversation. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Federal Role in Education". U.S. Department of Education. 2021-06-15. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  3. ^ "Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)". CDC. 2019-02-21. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  4. ^ a b Klein, Alyson (June 24, 2018). "A History Of The Department Of Education". NPR (Interview). Interviewed by Michel Martin.
  5. ^ "Education". U.S. Department of the Interior. 2015-07-01. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  6. ^ "About DoDEA Schools Worldwide". Department of Defense Education Activity. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  7. ^ "Programs and Initiatives: Our Exchange Programs". Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  8. ^ "An Overview of the U.S. Department of Education". U.S. Department of Education. 2018-05-14. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  9. ^ a b Vergon, Charles B. (1990). "School Desegregation: Lessons from Three Decades of Experience". Education and Urban Society. 23 (1): 22–49. doi:10.1177/0013124590023001002. ISSN 0013-1245.
  10. ^ a b c Pub. L. 88–352: Civil Rights Act of 1964
  11. ^ a b Pub. L. 89–329: Higher Education Act of 1965
  12. ^ a b Pub. L. 89–10: Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965
  13. ^ a b c Gamson, David A.; McDermott, Kathryn A.; Reed, Douglas S. (2015-12-01). "The Elementary and Secondary Education Act at Fifty: Aspirations, Effects, and Limitations". RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences. 1 (3): 1–29. doi:10.7758/RSF.2015.1.3.01. ISSN 2377-8253.
  14. ^ a b Pub. L. 90–247: Bilingual Education Act
  15. ^ a b Pub. L. 92–318: Education Amendments of 1972
  16. ^ Pub. L. 97–35: Omnibus Reconciliation Act of 1981, Title V
  17. ^ Kamenetz, Anya (2018-04-29). "What 'A Nation At Risk' Got Wrong, And Right, About U.S. Schools". NPR. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  18. ^ Pub. L. 107–110: No Child Left Behind Act (text) (PDF)
  19. ^ Davis, Julie Hirschfeld (2015-12-11). "President Obama Signs Into Law a Rewrite of No Child Left Behind". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  20. ^ "Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)". U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  21. ^ "OCC Fact Sheet". Office of Child Care. May 9, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  22. ^ "Head Start Programs". Office of Head Start. November 3, 2020. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  23. ^ "Nita M. Lowey 21st Century Community Learning Centers". Office of Elementary & Secondary Education. January 31, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  24. ^ Michel, Sonya (2011). "The History of Child Care in the U.S." Virginia Commonwealth University. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  25. ^ "About Us". Bureau of Indian Education. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  26. ^ "Q: What legal obligations do schools have to English language learners (ELLs)?". National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  27. ^ Pub. L. 101–476: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
  28. ^ "Welcome to OSEP". U.S. Department of Education. March 28, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
  29. ^ "About IDEA". Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Retrieved 2022-07-05.
  30. ^ "Guidance on Constitutionally Protected Prayer and Religious Expression in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools". U.S. Department of Education. April 5, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
  31. ^ "Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578 (1987)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  32. ^ "Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  33. ^ "Abington School District v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203 (1963)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  34. ^ "Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe, 530 U.S. 290 (2000)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  35. ^ "Sen. Byrd introduces amendment allowing school prayer". Associated Press. 2006-04-30. Archived from the original on 2009-01-25. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
  36. ^ Brock, Marieke; Kriger, Norma; Miró, Ramón (2017). School Safety Policies and Programs Administered by the U.S. Federal Government: 1990–2016 (PDF) (Report). National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
  37. ^ "What Is Not Part of the Department of Education's Role?". U.S. Department of Education. May 14, 2018. Retrieved July 6, 2022.
  38. ^ Educational Assessment and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Report). Congressional Research Service. December 19, 2017.
  39. ^ "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  40. ^ "Bethel Sch. Dist. v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675 (1986)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  41. ^ "Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393 (2007)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  42. ^ "Know Your Rights | Students' Rights". American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  43. ^ "Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260 (1988)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  44. ^ "New Jersey v. T.L.O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  45. ^ "Vernonia School Dist. 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  46. ^ "Board of Ed. of Independent School Dist. No. 92 of Pottawatomie Cty. v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822 (2002)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  47. ^ "Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651 (1977)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  48. ^ "Types of Financial Aid". Federal Student Aid. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  49. ^ "Regents of Univ. of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  50. ^ "Mississippi Univ. for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718 (1982)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
  51. ^ Pub. L. 101–542: Clery Act
  52. ^ "Rosenberger v. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia, 515 U.S. 819 (1995)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2022-05-07.
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