Jump to content

Maximilian I of Mexico

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 122.106.71.175 (talk) at 11:58, 22 December 2022 (→Accession). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Maximilian I
Portrait by Albert Gräfle, 1865
Emperor of Mexico
Reign10 April 1864 – 19 June 1867[1]
PredecessorBenito Juárez
(President of Mexico)
SuccessorBenito Juárez
(President of Mexico)
Prime ministers
See list
Viceroy of Lombardy–Venetia
In office
6 September 1857 – 20 April 1859
MonarchFranz Joseph I
Preceded byJosef Radetzky
(Governor-General)
Succeeded byFerenc Gyulay
(Governor-General)
Born(1832-07-06)6 July 1832
Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austrian Empire
Died19 June 1867(1867-06-19) (aged 34)
Cerro de las Campanas, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexican Empire
Burial18 January 1868
Imperial Crypt, Vienna, Austria
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1857)​
Names
Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria
HouseHabsburg-Lorraine
FatherArchduke Franz Karl of Austria
MotherPrincess Sophie of Bavaria
ReligionRoman Catholicism
SignatureCursive signature in ink

Maximilian I (Template:Lang-de, Template:Lang-es; 6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867) was an Austrian archduke who reigned as the only Emperor of the Second Mexican Empire from 10 April 1864 until his execution on 19 June 1867. A member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, Maximilian was the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. He had a distinguished career as the Austrian viceroy of Lombardy–Venetia and the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Austrian Navy.

His involvement in Mexico came about after France, together with Spain and the United Kingdom, had occupied the port of Veracruz in the winter of 1861 to pressure the Mexican government into settling its debts with the three powers after Mexico had announced a suspension on debt repayment earlier in the year; the Spanish and British both withdrew the following year after negotiating agreements with the Mexican government and realizing the true intention of the French, who were aiming at regime change. Seeking to legitimize French intervention, Emperor Napoleon III invited Maximilian to establish what would come to be known as the Second Mexican Empire, which gained the collaboration of Mexican conservatives and certain moderate liberals. With a pledge of French military support and at the formal invitation of a Mexican delegation, Maximilian accepted the crown of Mexico on 10 April 1864.[2]

The Mexican Empire managed to gain the diplomatic recognition of several European powers, including Russia, Austria, and Prussia.[3] The United States, while it did not protest formally against the empire, [4] continued to recognize Juárez as the legal president of Mexico and saw the French presence as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. The U.S. was unable to intervene politically due to its ongoing civil war. Franco-Mexican forces never completely defeated the Mexican Republic, but pushed their troops to the border with the U.S.[5] Republican guerillas also continued to be active throughout the Empire. With the end of the American Civil War in 1865, the United States began providing more explicit aid to Juárez's forces. French armies began to withdraw from Mexico in 1866. The Mexican Empire began to falter and Maximilian was captured after a last stand at Queretaro. He would be tried and executed by the restored Republican government alongside his generals Miguel Miramon and Tomas Mejia on June, 1867.[6]

Early life

Maximilian was born on 6 July 1832 in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, capital of the Austrian Empire.[7][8] He was baptized the following day as Ferdinand Maximilian Josef Maria. The first name honored his godfather and paternal uncle, Emperor Ferdinand I, and the second honored his maternal grandfather, Maximilian I Joseph, King of Bavaria.[9][10] His father was Archduke Franz Karl, the second surviving son of Emperor Francis I, during whose reign he was born. Maximilian was thus a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, a female-line cadet branch of the House of Habsburg.[11] His mother was Princess Sophie of Bavaria, a member of the House of Wittelsbach.[12] Intelligent, ambitious and strong-willed, Sophie had little in common with her husband, whom historian Richard O'Conner characterized as "an amiably dim fellow whose main interest in life was consuming bowls of dumplings drenched in gravy".[13] Despite their different personalities, the marriage was fruitful, and after four miscarriages, four sons – including Maximilian – would reach adulthood.[14] Rumors at the court stated that Maximilian was, in fact, the product of an extramarital affair between his mother and Napoleon II, Duke of Reichstadt.[15] The existence of an illicit affair between Sophie and the duke, and any possibility that Maximilian was conceived from such a union, are dubious.[A]

Maximilian as a boy, 1838, by Joseph Karl Stieler

Adhering to traditions inherited from the Spanish court during Habsburg rule, Maximilian's upbringing was closely supervised. Until his sixth birthday, he was cared for by Baroness Louise von Sturmfeder, who was his aja (then rendered "nurse", now nanny). Afterward, his education was entrusted to a tutor.[16] Most of Maximilian's day was spent in study. The hours per week of classes steadily increased from 32 at age seven to 55 by the time he was 17.[17] The disciplines were diverse, ranging from history, geography, law and technology, to languages, military studies, fencing and diplomacy.[17] From an early age, Maximilian tried to surpass his older brother Franz Joseph in everything, attempting to prove to all that he was the better qualified of the two and thus deserving of more than second-place status.[18]

The highly restrictive environment of the Austrian court was not enough to repress Maximilian's natural openness. He was joyful, highly charismatic, and able to captivate those around him with ease. Although he was a charming boy, he was also undisciplined.[19] He mocked his teachers and was often the instigator of pranks – including even his uncle, the emperor, among his victims.[20] Nonetheless, Maximilian was popular. His attempts to outshine his older brother and his ability to charm opened a rift between him and the aloof and self-contained Franz Joseph that would widen as years passed, and their close friendship in childhood would be all but forgotten.[18]

In 1848, revolutions erupted across Europe. In the face of protests and riots, Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of Maximilian's brother.[21][22] Maximilian accompanied him on campaigns to put down rebellions throughout the empire.[23][22] Only in 1849 would the revolution be stamped out in Austria, with hundreds of rebels executed and thousands imprisoned. Maximilian was horrified at what he regarded as senseless brutality and openly complained about it. He would later remark, "We call our age the Age of Enlightenment, but there are cities in Europe where, in the future, men will look back in horror and amazement at the injustice of tribunals, which in a spirit of vengeance condemned to death those whose only crime lay in wanting something different to the arbitrary rule of governments which placed themselves above the law".[24][25]

At a court ball in Vienna[when?], while still a bachelor, he had fallen in love with a young Moldavian noblewoman, Viktoria Keshko (1835-1856), paternal aunt of the future Queen of Serbia. As her family was Orthodox and did not belong to the reigning or former reigning ones, the question of marriage was impossible. When their romance was discovered, her father Ioan Keshko (1809–1863), who served as Russian Marshal of Nobility in Bessarabia, quickly sent her back home and forcefully married her off to her longtime admirer, local rich nobleman of Greek descent, Alexander Dimitrievich Inglezi (1826-1903), son of Dimitri Spiridonovich Inglezi (1771-1846).[26][27]

Career in the Imperial Austrian Navy

Commander-in-Chief

Maximilian in uniform, 1853

Maximilian was a clever boy who displayed considerable culture in his taste for the arts. He also demonstrated an early interest in science, especially botany. When he entered military service, he was trained in the Imperial Austrian Navy. He displayed zeal in his naval career and his direct link with Emperor Franz Joseph enabled the diversion of resources to what had previously been a neglected service .[28]

Maximilian embarked on the corvette Vulcain, for a brief cruise through Greece. On October 1850, he was named navy lieutenant. At the beginning of 1851, he embarked on another much more distant cruise onboard the SMS Novara. He enjoyed the latter voyage so much that he anticipated in his diary “I shall fulfill one of my most beloved dreams, a voyage by sea. I depart with my memories of my beloved Austrian homeland in a very emotional moment for me.“[29]

Maria Amélia of Brazil

This voyage took him to Lisbon, where he met the princess Maria Amélia de Braganza, daughter of the late Brazilian Emperor Pedro I, and who was described as beautiful, pious, clever, and of a refined education.[30] The pair subsequently fell in love. Franz Joseph and his mother approved of a prospective marriage between them. Regardless, on February, 1852, Maria Amalia contracted scarlet fever. Her health worsened over the months and she developed tuberculosis. Her doctors advised her to leave Lisbon and go to Madeira, where she arrived in August, 1852. At the end of November, she had lost hope of ever recovering her health. [31] Maria Amalia died on February 4, 1853, which deeply shook Maximilian. [32][33]

Continuing in his naval career, Maximilian perfected his knowledge of commanding sailors, and received a solid education regarding the technical aspects of navigation. On September 10, 1854, he was named Commander in Chief of the Austrian Navy and was granted the rank of counter admiral. Amidst those naval experiences, he further developed his love of voyages and of getting to experience new, exotic locations. He visited Beirut, Palestine, and Egypt. [34]

At the end of 1855, he sought refuge in the Gulf of Trieste from poor sailing weather, and was impressed enough to immediately considere building a residence there, a goal which he actually carried out in March, 1856, when he began construction of what would later be called Miramare Castle, located in the city of Trieste.

After the end of the Crimean War in March, 1856, brought a period of peace to Europe, Maximilian traveled to Paris to meet Emperor of the French, Napoleon III and his wife the Empress Eugénie,[35] two individuals who would later prove to be rather decisive in the life of Maximilian. The Archduke would write about this initial meeting in his diary “although the emperor lacks the genius of his famous uncle, he retains fortunately for France, a grand personality. He stands tall over the century, and shall surely leave his mark on it.” [36]

Marriage to Charlotte of Belgium

Charlotte and her fiancee Maximilian by Louis-Joseph Ghémar (1857).

In May of 1856, Franz Joseph, asked Maximilan to return from Paris to Vienna, stopping on the way at Brussels, in order to visit the King of the Belgians, Leopold. On May 30, 1856, he arrived at Belgium where he was received by Prince Philippe, younger son of Leopold I. He was accompanied by the Belgian princes, and visited the cities of Tournai, Kortrijk, Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, and Charleroi. [37] In Brussells, Maximilian met the only daughter of the king and the late queen Louise of Orleans, Charlotte of Belgium, and immediately fell under her spell. [38] Leopold I, upon becoming aware of their feelings advised Maximilian to propose. Having done so, he was welcomed into the Belgian Court, and would later remark upon the modest contrast that the Palace of Laeken offered relative to the splendor of the Imperial Vienesse residences. [37]

Prince George of Saxony, whom previously had been rejected by Charlotte, warned Leopold I of the “calculating character of the Vienesse archduke. [39] The son of Leopold I, the duke of Bravant, and future Leopold II, in contrast, wrote to Queen Victoria, who was Charlotte’s cousin, “Max is a youth filled with ingenuity, knowledge, talent and kindness.”

The engagement was formally concluded on December 23, 1856. On July 27, 1857 Maximilian and Charlotte were married in the royal palace of Brussels. Distinguished European royals attended the ceremony, including the first cousin of Charlotte and husband of Queen Victoria, Prince Albert. The marriage also enhanced the prestige of the newly established Belgian dynasty as the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha once more found itself allied with the House of Habsburg. [40]

Viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia

Royal Palace of Milan

On February 28, 1857, Franz Joseph named Maximilian as viceroy of Lombardy Venetia. [41] On September 6, 1857, Maximilian and Charlotte made their entrance to the capital Milan. During their stay there the couple lived at the Royal Palace of Milan and occasionally resided at the Royal Villa of Monza. [42] As governor, Maximilian lived as a sovereign surrounded by an imposing court of chamberlains and servants. [43] During his reign, Maximilian continued the construction of Miramar Castle, which would not be finished until three years later. Charlotte’s dowry aided in the construction. Her brother Leopold would remark in his diary that “the construction of that palace amounts to endless madness.” [44]

Maximilian worked on developing the imperial navy, and he organized the expedition of the Novara, which would turn out to be the first circumnavigation of the globe commanded by the Austrian Empire, a scientific expedition, which lasted more than two years from 1857 to 1859, and which involved the participation of many Viennese intellectuals. [45] Politically, the Archduke was strongly influenced by nineteenth century liberalism. The appointment of the young progressive Maximilian to the office of viceroy was made in response to the growing discontent of the Italian population with the rule older Joseph Radetzky von Radetz. The appointment of an Archduke, indeed the Emperor’s own brother was also intended to develop personal loyalty to the House of Habsburg.

Charlotte made efforts to win over her subjects, speaking Italian, visiting charitable institutions, inaugurating schools, and dressing in native Lombardian dress. [46] On Easter, 1858, Maximilian and Charlotte walked down the Grand Canal of Venice in ceremonial dress. [47] Regardless of their efforts, antiaustrian continued to spread rapidly throughout the Italian population. [41]

Maximilian’s efforts in administering the province included a revision of the tax registry, a more equitable distribution of tax revenue, the establishment of medical districts, dredging the Venetian canals, expanding the port of Cuomo, draining swamps to put a stop to malaria, fertilization projects and the irrigation of the plains of Friuli. There was also a series of urban development projects. The Riva degli Schiavoni was extended to the royal gardens of Venice, while in Milan, the avenues gained priority, the Piazza del Duomo was widened, and a new plaza was built between the Teatro alla Scala and the Palazzo Marino. The Biblioteca Ambrosiana library was also restored. [48]

The British minister of foreign relations wrote in 1859 that “the administration of the provinces of Lombardy Venetia were directed by the Archduke Maximilian with great talent, and both a liberal and conciliatory spirit.” [49]

Dismissal

Lombardy Venetia in green. Map of the Italian peninsula in the context of Italian Unification

While officially being the viceroy, the jurisdiction of Maximilian did not fully extend over the Austrian garrison, which was opposed to any sort of liberal reforms. Maximilian went to Vienna in April of 1858 to ask Franz Joseph to grant him both military and administrative jurisdiction, while continuing a policy of concessions. Franz Joseph rejected the appeal in favor of a more stern approach. [41]

Maximilian was left with the limited role of prefect of police while tensions were rising in Piedmont. On January 3, 1859, for security reasons, Carlota was asked to return to Miramar, and she sent her valuables out of Lombardy Venetia. Only while safe in the royal Palace of Milan did she share her concerns with her mother Sofia. [50]

On February, 1859, numerous arrests were made in Milan and Venice. The prisoners came from the upper classes and were transported to Mantua and various prisons throughout the realm. The city of Brescia was occupied by militia, while several batallions were camped on Plasencia, and on the shores of the river Po. Maximilian hoped to moderate the severe dispositions of General Ferencz Gyulai. Maximilian had just received permission from his brother to open the private law schools in Pavia and Padua. In March, 1859, there were incidents between the Milanese police and the Veronese public. In Pavia, one of the states governed by Maximilian, Austria created a veritable state of military occupation. The Italian situation was becoming critical, and order could no longer be maintained without mercenary troops.

Maximilan’s conciliatory efforts ultimately fell apart when his various projects for improving the wellbeing of the public were shut down. Franz Joseph was intent on preventing any concessions, and considered Maximilian too liberal and generous with the rebellious Italian population. [51] Subsequently he was relieved of his charge on April 10, 1859. [52]

News of Maximilian’s dismissal was received with enthusiasm by the Italian statesman, and pivotal figure in unification, the Count of Cavour, who declared that

“In Lombardy, our worst enemy...was the Archduke Maximilian; young, active, enterprising, who dedicated himself completely to the difficult task of winning over the Milanese, and who was about to triumph in it. The Lombardian provinces had never been so prosperous or well administered. Thank God that the good government of Vienna intervened, and as usual, took advantage of the opportunity to commit a blunder, an impudent act, one most fatal to Austria, but most advantageous to Piedmont...Lombardy shall now fall into our grasp."[53]

Emperor of Mexico

Main article: Second Mexican Empire

Accession

See also: Monarchism in Mexico
José María Gutiérrez Estrada

After gaining independence in 1821 Mexico had soon divided itself into liberal and conservative parties, the latter of which contained a monarchist faction. Monarchist plans had most clearly been laid out in an 1840 essay by the statesman José María Gutiérrez de Estrada, which argued that after two decades of chaos, the republic had failed, and that a European prince ought to be invited to establish a Mexican throne. Such ideas received official interest during the presidency of Mariano Paredes and during the last presidency of Santa Anna, but by the late 1850s the liberals had appeared to have achieved a decisive victory through the promulgation of the Constitution of 1857, and their triumph in the subsequent Reform War.

Mexican diplomat Jose Hidalgo had been officially tasked by the Santa Anna administration to sound European courts for interest in establishing a Mexican monarchy, but after the fall of Santa Anna in 1853, Hidalgo had lost his accreditation and continued his efforts independently. Hidalgo's childhood friend, the Spanish noblewoman Eugénie de Montijo was now wife of Napoleon III, Emperor of France, and it was through her that Hidalgo managed to gain the attention of Napoleon. By 1861, the United States was now embroiled in its Civil War and unable to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. In July of that year, Mexican President Benito Juarez had also suspended the payment of foreign debts, providing a pretext for intervention. Napoleon saw the opportunity to establish a French client state which could also serve as a buffer to the expansion of the United States. France gained the aid of Britain and Spain, under the pretext of arranging an expedition simply to renegotiate Mexico's debt agreements. Plans for such an expedition were formalized at the Convention of London on October 31, 1861.

The name of Maximilian came up swiftly in discussions among the Mexican monarchists on potential candidates for a Mexican throne. It was perceived as impolitic to propose a noble from one of the nations involved in the expedition and Maximilian already had a reputation as a capable administrator from his time spent as viceroy of Lombardy Venice. It was then decided that Gutiérrez de Estrada due to his pivotal role in the history of Mexican monarchism, was to be given the role of inviting Maximilian to assume a Mexican throne.[54]

Gutiérrez de Estrada received Maximilian's answer at the beginning of October. The archduke would accept the throne on two conditions: 1st, that Mexico should spontaneously ask for him and 2nd, that he should also be assured of the support of France and Great Britain.[55] Maximilian's brother, Franz Joseph Emperor of Austria, now sent Count de Rechberg, the Austrian minister of foreign affairs to brief Maximilian on what lay in store in the case that France did militarily intervene in Mexico, and a Mexican plebiscite approved of Maximilian. [56]

Meanwhile agreements between France, Great Britain, and Spain broke down as it became increasingly clear that France intended to overthrow the government of Mexico. France began military operations on April, 1862. They were eventually joined by conservative Mexican generals who had never been entirely defeated in the War of Reform.[57] After Charles de Lorencez's small expeditionary force was repulsed at the Battle of Puebla, reinforcements were sent and placed under the command of Élie Forey. The capital was taken by June, 1863 and the French now sought to establish a friendly Mexican government. Forey appointed a committee of thirty five Mexicans, the Junta Superior who then elected three Mexican citizens to serve as the government's executive. In turn this triumvirate then selected two hundred fifteen Mexican citizens to form together with the Junta Superior, an Assembly of Notables.[58]

The Assembly met on July, 1863 and resolved to invite Ferdinand Maximilian to be Emperor of Mexico. The executive triumvirate was formally changed into the Regency of the Mexican Empire. An official delegation left Mexico and arrived in Europe on October. Upon meeting the delegation, Maximilian set forth the condition that he would only accept the throne if a national plebiscite approved of it.[59] By February, 1864 Franco-Mexican forces controlled territory compromising the majority of Mexico's population, and returns from a plebiscite claiming to show that a majority of Mexicans were in favor of the Empire were sent to Maximilian, which he accepted. [60] Maximilian formally accepted the crown on 10 April 1864, and set sail for Mexico.

Reign

The arrival of the Emperor and Empress of Mexico at Vera Cruz

In April 1864, Maximilian stepped down from his duties as chief of Naval Section of the Austrian Navy. He traveled from Trieste aboard SMS Novara, escorted by the frigates SMS Bellona (Austrian) and Thémis (French), and the Imperial yacht Phantasie led the warship procession from his Miramare Castle out to sea.[61] They received a blessing from Pope Pius IX, and Queen Victoria ordered the Gibraltar garrison to fire a salute for Maximilian's passing ship.[62]

The widespread doubts amongst informed persons concerning the wisdom of Maximilian's venture were reflected by the French colonel Charles du Barail, who while returning from arduous service in Mexico sighted the Novara during its Atlantic crossing.[63] Wrote du Barail: "If you succeed in bringing order out of this chaos, fortune into this misery, union into these hearts you will be the greatest sovereign of modern times. Go poor fool! You may regret your beautiful castle of Miramar!" [64]

The new emperor of Mexico landed at Veracruz on 29 May 1864,[65] and received a sparse reception from the townspeople due to a yellow fever break out. [66] In addition, Veracruz was a liberal town, and the liberal voters were opposed to a monarchical government.[67] The imperial couple’s arrival at the capital was more celebrated, with fireworks and hundreds of triumphant arches.[68] Maximilian and Carlota were crowned at the Cathedral of Mexico City. [69][70][71] He had the backing of Mexican conservatives, clergy, some native Mexican populations, and Napoleon III, but from the very outset he found himself involved in serious difficulties, since the Liberal forces led by President Benito Juárez refused to recognize his rule. There was continuous fighting between the French expeditionary forces (who were supplemented by Maximilian's locally recruited Imperial Mexican troops) on one side and the Mexican Republicans on the other.[72]

The imperial couple chose their seat at Mexico City. The emperor and empress set up their residence at Chapultepec Castle, located on the top of a hill formerly on the outskirts of Mexico City that had been a retreat of Aztec emperors and Spanish viceroys. Maximilian ordered a wide avenue cut through the city from Chapultepec to the city center named Paseo de Chapultepec or Paseo de la Emperatriz (now known as Paseo de la Reforma).[73] He also acquired a country retreat at Cuernavaca.

Maximilian I of Mexico depicted on a 20-peso gold coin (1866)
Maximilian I of Mexico depicted on a 20-peso gold coin (1866)

As Maximilian and Carlota had no children, they adopted Agustín de Iturbide y Green and his cousin Salvador de Iturbide y de Marzán, both grandsons of Agustín de Iturbide, who had briefly reigned as Emperor of Mexico in the 1820s. Agustin's mother, Alicia Iturbide, an American who was born Alice Green, agreed under duress to give up her child. Soon after, she pled with Maximilian to renounce the adoption contract, but he had her forcibly deported from Mexico without her child.[74]

Agustin and his cousin were granted the title Prince de Iturbide and the style of Highness by an imperial decree of 16 September 1865, and were ranked next in line after the reigning family.[75] Apparently, the royal couple intended to groom Agustín as heir to the throne. Maximilian never really intended to give the crown to the Iturbides because he believed that they were not of royal blood.[76] It was all a charade directed at his brother Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria, as Maximilian explained himself: either Karl would give him one of his sons as an heir, or else he would bequeath everything to the Iturbide children.[76] In October 1866, "With dreams of founding an imperial dynasty vanquished, Maximilian now wrote to Alice Iturbide that he was returning her son, Agustín, to her care."[77]

To the dismay of his conservative allies, Maximilian upheld several liberal policies proposed by the Juárez administration, such as land reforms, religious freedom, and extending the right to vote beyond the landholding classes. At first, Maximilian offered Juárez an amnesty if he would swear allegiance to the crown, even offering him the post of prime minister, which Juárez refused.[78]

After the end of the American Civil War, President Andrew Johnson invoked the Monroe Doctrine and recognized the Juárez government as the legitimate government of Mexico. The United States applied increasing diplomatic pressure to persuade Napoleon III to end French support of Maximilian and to withdraw French troops from Mexico. Washington began supplying partisans of Juárez and his ally Porfirio Díaz by "losing" arms depots to them at El Paso del Norte at the Mexican border.[79] The prospect of an American invasion to reinstate Juárez caused a large number of Maximilian's loyal adherents to abandon his cause and leave the capital.[80]

Emperor Maximilian and Empress Carlota receiving a Kickapoo delegation at Chapultepec Castle
Maximilian's empire and the surrounding states and territories

Meanwhile, Maximilian invited ex-Confederates to move to Mexico in a series of settlements called the "Carlota Colony" and the New Virginia Colony, with a dozen others being considered, a plan conceived by the internationally renowned U.S. Navy oceanographer and inventor Matthew Fontaine Maury. Maximilian also invited settlers from "any country", including Austria and the other German states.[81]

Maximilian issued his "Black Decree"' on 3 October 1865. Its first article stated that: "All individuals forming a part of armed bands or bodies existing without legal authority, whether or not proclaiming a political pretext, whatever the number of those forming such band, or its organization, character, and denomination, shall be judged militarily by the courts martial. If found guilty, even though only of the fact of belonging to an armed band, they shall be condemned to capital punishment, and the sentence shall be executed within twenty-four hours". It is calculated that more than eleven thousand of Juárez's supporters were executed as a result of the decree, but in the end it only inflamed the Republican resistance.[82][83][84]

Nevertheless, by 1866, the imminence of Maximilian's abdication seemed apparent to almost everyone outside Mexico. That year, Napoleon III withdrew his troops in the face of Mexican resistance and U.S. opposition under the Monroe Doctrine, as well as to strengthen his forces at home to face the ever-growing Prussian military. Carlota travelled to Europe, seeking assistance for her husband's regime in Paris and Vienna and, finally, in Rome from Pope Pius IX. Her efforts failed, and she suffered a deep emotional collapse and never went back to Mexico.[85]

Downfall

Though urged to abandon Mexico by Napoleon III himself, whose troop withdrawal from Mexico was a great blow to the Mexican Imperial cause, Maximilian was reluctant to desert his followers. Uncertain as to his future course of action, Maximilian allowed a conference of twenty-three of his supporters to vote against his abdication.[86] Faithful generals such as Miguel Miramón, Leonardo Márquez, and Tomás Mejía vowed to raise an army that would challenge the resurgent Republicans. Maximilian fought on with his army of 8,000 Mexican loyalists. Forced to withdraw from Mexico City in February 1867, Maximilian and most of his remaining forces fell back to Querétaro City, and sustained a siege for several weeks. On 11 May, Maximilian resolved to attempt an escape through the enemy lines. This plan was sabotaged by Colonel Miguel López who secretly agreed with the Republican General Escobedo to open a gate and lead a raiding party to seize the Imperial headquarters. López appears to have assumed that Maximilian would be allowed to escape.[87]

The city fell on 15 May 1867, and Maximilian was captured the next morning after a failed attempt to escape through Republican lines by a loyal hussar cavalry brigade led by Felix Salm-Salm. A court-martial was convened by the now victorious Republicans; Maximilian was convicted and sentenced to death. A number of the crowned heads of Europe and other prominent figures (including the eminent liberals Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi) sent telegrams and letters to Mexico requesting that the Emperor's life be spared.[88]

Death

Although he respected Maximilian on a personal level,[89] Juárez refused to commute the sentence in view of the Mexicans who had been killed fighting against Maximilian's forces, and because he believed it was necessary to send a message that Mexico would not tolerate any government imposed by foreign powers. Felix Salm-Salm and his wife devised a plan to allow Maximilian to escape execution by bribing his jailors. However, Maximilian would not go through with the plan unless Generals Miramón and Mejía could accompany him and because he felt that shaving his beard to avoid recognition would undermine his dignity if he were to be recaptured.[90] The sentence was carried out in the Cerro de las Campanas at 6:40 a.m. on the morning of 19 June 1867, when Maximilian, along with Miramón and Mejía, was executed by a firing squad. He spoke only in Spanish and gave each of his executioners a gold coin not to shoot him in the head so that his mother could see his face. His last words were, "I forgive everyone, and I ask everyone to forgive me. May my blood, which is about to be shed, be for the good of the country. ¡Viva México, viva la independencia!"[91] Generals Miramón and Mejía standing to Maximilian's right, were killed by the same volley as the emperor, fired by the fifteen-man (twenty-one in other accounts) execution party. Maximilian and Miramón died almost immediately, the emperor calling out the single word hombre, but Mejía's death was more extended.[92]

Last moments of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, by Jean-Paul Laurens
Emperor Maximilian's shirt, worn during his execution

After Maximilian's execution, his body was embalmed and displayed in Mexico. Early the following year, the Austrian admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff was sent to Mexico aboard SMS Novara to take the late emperor's body back to Austria. After arriving in Trieste, the coffin was taken to Vienna and placed in the Imperial Crypt on 18 January 1868. The Emperor Maximilian Memorial Chapel was constructed on the hill where his execution took place.[93]

Legacy

Maximilian has been praised by some historians for his liberal reforms, genuine desire to help the people of Mexico, refusal to desert his loyal followers, and personal bravery during the siege of Querétaro. Other researchers consider him short-sighted in political and military affairs, and unwilling to restore republican ideals in Mexico even during the imminent collapse of the Second Mexican Empire. Today, anti-republican and anti-liberal political groups who advocate the Second Mexican Empire, such as the Nationalist Front of Mexico, are reported to gather every year in Querétaro to commemorate the execution of Maximilian and his followers.[94]

Maximilian is portrayed in the 1934 Mexican film Juárez y Maximiliano by Enrique Herrera and the 1939 American film Juarez by Brian Aherne. In the 1939 film The Mad Empress he was played by Conrad Nagel. He also appeared in one scene in the 1954 American film Vera Cruz, played by George Macready. In theater, he appeared in the play Juarez and Maximilian by Franz Werfel, which was presented at Berlin in 1924, directed by Max Reinhardt. In the Mexican telenovela El Vuelo del Águila, Maximilian was portrayed by Mexican actor Mario Iván Martínez.[citation needed]

In the wake of his death, carte-de-visite cards with photographs commemorating his execution circulated both among his followers and among those who wished to celebrate his death. One such card featured a photograph of the shirt he wore to his execution, riddled with bullet holes.[95]

The composer Franz Liszt included a "Marche funèbre, en mémoire de Maximilian I, empereur de Mexique" (a funeral march, in memory of Maximilian I, Emperor of Mexico) among the pieces in his famous collection of piano pieces entitled Années de pèlerinage.[96]

Maximilian's execution was portrayed in a series of paintings by Édouard Manet.

The Emperor Maximilian Memorial Chapel was built on the site of his and his generals' execution on the Cerro de las Campanas in Queretaro.

A statue of Maximilian stands today in the 13th district of Vienna in front of the entrance to the Schönbrunn Palace Park. In Bad Ischl, the Maximilian fountain on the Traun, built in 1868, is a reminder of him. Another statue of Maximilian is in Trieste. It was brought back to its original place, Piazza Venezia, from the park of the Miramare Castle in 2009. Maximilian now “overlooks” part of the port of Trieste again. The Rostrata Columna, dedicated to him in 1876 in Maximilian Park in Pula, a work by Heinrich von Ferstel, was brought to Venice in 1919 as Italian spoils of war and is now, rededicated, on the edge of the Giardini pubblici.

Mementos of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico are on display at the Schatzkammer Museum in the Hofburg Palace in Vienna.[97]

The nearest living agnatic relative to Maximilian is the head of the Habsburg family, Karl von Habsburg,[98] and members of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine still reside in Mexico, among them Carlos Felipe de Habsburgo, the first male of the former ruling house to be born in the country.[99] Carlos Felipe is an academic who has given many interviews, conferences, and presentations regarding his family’s history, Maximilian and Carlota, and the Second Mexican Empire. [100][101]

Conspiracy theorists allege Maximilian was not executed and that, having entered a secret agreement with Juárez, lived in exile in El Salvador as Justo Armas until 1936.[102][103][104]

Ancestry

Honours

Foreign[105]

Arms

  • Coat of arms as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico
    Coat of arms as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico
  • Imperial Monogram
    Imperial Monogram
  • Dual Cypher of Emperor Maximilian and Empress Carlota of Mexico
    Dual Cypher of Emperor Maximilian and Empress Carlota of Mexico

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Such an easy assumption of an improbable sexual relationship", said Alan Palmer, "fails to understand the nature of the attachment binding" Sophie and Reichstadt, who saw themselves as alien misfits stranded in a foreign court.[12] To Palmer, their "confidences were those of a brother and elder sister rather than of lovers".[12] "There is no documentary evidence to suggest that she and the Duke of Reichstadt were ever lovers", according to Joan Haslip.[117] "Whether the young Napoleon was actually the father of Maximilian could only be the subject of fascinating conjecture, something for courtiers and servants to gossip about on the long winter nights in the Hofburg [Palace]", said Richard O'Connor.[118] "There is not a shred of evidence to support the rumors", affirmed Jasper Ridley.[15] "It was said that Sophie confessed", continued Ridley, "in a letter to her father confessor, that Maximilian was the son of Napoleon, and that the letter was found and destroyed in 1859, but there is no reason to believe this story ... would she have had a sexual relationship with a boy whom she regarded as a child and a younger brother?"[119] The birth of two more sons after the death of Reichstadt in 1832 lessened even more the credibility of these claims.[119]

Citations

  1. ^ Maximilian I of Mexico at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  2. ^ McAllen, M.M. (2014). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-59534-183-9.
  3. ^ Harding 1934, pp. 175.
  4. ^ Stephenson, Nathaniel W. (4 September 2022). "Abraham Lincoln and the Union: A Chronicle of the Embattled North".
  5. ^ Contreras, Raoul Lowery (2003). Jalapeno Chiles, Mexican Americans and Other Hot Stuff: A Peoples' Cultural Identity. ISBN 9780595292561.
  6. ^ "Emperor of Mexico executed". HISTORY. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  7. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 6.
  8. ^ Hyde 1946, p. 4.
  9. ^ Haslip 1972, pp. 6–7.
  10. ^ Hyde 1946, p. 5.
  11. ^ Palmer 1994, pp. 3, 5.
  12. ^ a b c Palmer 1994, p. 3.
  13. ^ O'Connor 1971, p. 29.
  14. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 7.
  15. ^ a b Ridley 2001, p. 44.
  16. ^ Hyde 1946, pp. 6–7.
  17. ^ a b Hyde 1946, p. 7.
  18. ^ a b Haslip 1972, p. 17.
  19. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 11.
  20. ^ Haslip 1972, pp. 14–15.
  21. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 29.
  22. ^ a b Hyde 1946, p. 13.
  23. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 31.
  24. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 34.
  25. ^ Hyde 1946, p. 14.
  26. ^ https://chisineu.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/lica-sainciuc_chisinaul-ascuns.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  27. ^ "Evocările de Miercuri: Mitul iubirii sau Îngerul cu aripi demontate". 19 February 2020.
  28. ^ Antonio Schmidt-Brentano The Austrian admirals Volume I, 1808–1895, Library Verlag, Osnabrück 1997, pp. 93–104.
  29. ^ Habsburg 1868, p. 291.
  30. ^ Almeida 1973, p. 58.
  31. ^ Almeida 1973, p. 78.
  32. ^ Defrance 2004, p. 263.
  33. ^ Kramar 1999.
  34. ^ Duncan 2020, pp. 37–64.
  35. ^ Castelot 2002, pp. 53–57.
  36. ^ Kerckvoorde 1981, p. 35.
  37. ^ a b Kerckvoorde 1981, p. 36.
  38. ^ Bilteryst 2014, p. 70.
  39. ^ Kerckvoorde 1981, p. 40.
  40. ^ Bilteryst 2014, p. 71.
  41. ^ a b c Defrance 2004, p. 267.
  42. ^ Defrance 2004, pp. 6–7.
  43. ^ Kerckvoorde 1981, p. 62.
  44. ^ Capron 1986.
  45. ^ Günter 1973, p. 224.
  46. ^ Castelot 2002, p. 84.
  47. ^ Castelot 2002, pp. 85–86.
  48. ^ Castelot 2002, p. 87.
  49. ^ Castelot 2002, p. 89.
  50. ^ Castelot 2002, p. 96.
  51. ^ Kerckvoorde 1981, p. 64.
  52. ^ Defrance 2004, p. 6.
  53. ^ Castelot 2002, p. 99.
  54. ^ Hidalgo, Jose Maria (1904). Proyectos de Monarquia en Mexico. F. Vazquez. p. 88.
  55. ^ Hidalgo, Jose Maria (1904). Proyectos de Monarquia en Mexico. F. Vazquez. p. 101.
  56. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Mexico VI:1861-1887. New York: The Bancroft Company. p. 98.
  57. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1887). History of Mexico Volume VI 1861-1887. San Francisco: The History Company. p. 51.
  58. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1887). History of Mexico Volume VI 1861-1887. San Francisco: The History Company. pp. 77–78.
  59. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Mexico VI:1861-1887. New York: The Bancroft Company. p. 104.
  60. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Mexico VI:1861-1887. New York: The Bancroft Company. p. 135.
  61. ^ Haslip, Joan, Imperial Adventurer: Emperor Maximilian of Mexico, London, 1971, ISBN 0-297-00363-1
  62. ^ McAllen, M.M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  63. ^ McAllen, M.M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  64. ^ Smith, Gene (1973). Maximilian and Carlota: A Tale of Romance and Tragedy. p. 157. ISBN 0-688-00173-4.
  65. ^ Smith, Gene (1973). Maximilian and Carlotta. p. 159. ISBN 0-688-00173-4.
  66. ^ https://www.anmm.org.mx/GMM/2018/n1/GMM_154_1_111-117.pdf
  67. ^ Parkes 1960, p. 261.
  68. ^ Harris Chynoweth, W. (1872). "The Fall of Maximilian, Late Emperor of Mexico: With an Historical Introduction, the Events Immediately Preceding His Acceptance of the Crown".
  69. ^ Butler, John Wesley (1918). History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Mexico. University of Texas.
  70. ^ Campbell, Reau (1907). Campbell's New Revised Complete Guide and Descriptive Book of Mexico. Rogers & Smith Company. Pg.38 .
  71. ^ Putman, William Lowell (2001) Arctic Superstars. Light Technology Publishing, LLC. Pg.XVII.
  72. ^ Chartrand, Rene (28 July 1994). The Mexican Adventure 1861–67. pp. 18–23. ISBN 1-85532-430-X.
  73. ^ McAllen, M. M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  74. ^ Shawcross, Edward, The Last Emperor of Mexico, pp. 164-165.
  75. ^ Decreto Imperial del 16 de Septiembre de 1865  (in Spanish) – via Wikisource.
  76. ^ a b José Manuel Villalpando, Alejandro Rosas (2011), Presidentes de México, Grupo Planeta Spain, pp. are not numbered, ISBN 9786070707582
  77. ^ Shawcross, Edward, The Last Emperor of Mexico, p. 216.
  78. ^ McAllen, M. M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  79. ^ "Maximilian; Star Crossed Emperor of Mexico". Revisionist.net. Retrieved 7 June 2019.
  80. ^ Reuter, Paul H. (1965). "United States-French Relations Regarding French Intervention in Mexico: From the Tripartite Treaty to Querétaro". Southern Quarterly. 6 (4): 469–489.
  81. ^ Rolle, Andrew F. (1992). The Lost Cause: The Confederate Exodus to Mexico. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1961-6.
  82. ^ Donald W. Miles (2006), Cinco de Mayo: What is Everybody Celebrating? : the Story Behind Mexico's Battle of Puebla, iUniverse, p. 196, ISBN 9780595392414
  83. ^ Jasper Ridley (1993), Maximilian and Juárez, Constable, p. 229, ISBN 9780094720701
  84. ^ Shawcross, Edward, The Last Emperor of Mexico, p. 163.
  85. ^ "Belgium Mourns for Dead Empress; Tragedy of Life of Charlotte, Wife of Maximilian, Is Recalled", New York Times, 19 January 1927.
  86. ^ Hughes, Victoria (9 June 2016). A Lurid Grandeur: Maximilian & Carlota of Mexico. p. 307. ISBN 9780692723043.
  87. ^ McAllen, M. M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. pp. 354–355. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  88. ^ McAllen, M. M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 380. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  89. ^ Maximilian and Carlota by Gene Smith, ISBN 0-245-52418-5, ISBN 978-0-245-52418-9
  90. ^ Parkes 1960, p. 273.
  91. ^ Giving executer(s) a portion of gold/silver is well-established among European aristocracy since medieval time and not an act of desperation. In other accounts, Maximilian calmly said, "aim well", to the firing squad and met his death with dignity.
  92. ^ McAllen, M. M. (April 2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. p. 387. ISBN 978-1-59534-263-8.
  93. ^ Isaí Hidekel Tejada Vallejo (2010). "Preface: "El fusilamiento de Maximiliano de Habsburgo"". Manifiesto justificativo de los castigos nacionales en Querétaro (PDF). By Benito Juárez. Chamber of Deputies, LXI Legislature.
  94. ^ "Homage to the Martyrs of the Second Mexican Empire". Archived from the original on 3 May 2014.
  95. ^ Laughlin, Eleanor A. "Carte-de-visite Photograph of Maximilian von Habsburg's Execution Shirt". Object Narrative. In Conversations: An Online Journal of the Center for the Study of Material and Visual Cultures of Religion (2016). doi:10.22332/con.obj.2016.1
  96. ^ "En mémoire de Maximilien I – Marche funèbre, S162d (Liszt) – from CDA67414/7 – Hyperion Records – MP3 and Lossless downloads". www.hyperion-records.co.uk.
  97. ^ Szepter; Erinnerungsstück an Kaiser Maximilian I. von Mexiko
  98. ^ "Otto's path from 'last crown prince' to European politician". Die Welt der Habsburger. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  99. ^ "UPAEP | Global Innovation".
  100. ^ "IFG Afternoon Presentation (6/12/19)". IFG Annual Conference. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
  101. ^ "Museo Nacional de Arte". munal.mx. Retrieved 2 February 2020.
  102. ^ Sandra Weiss: Zweifel an Erschießung des Kaisers von Mexiko. In: Der Standard vom 24. March 2001.
  103. ^ Johann Lughofer: Des Kaisers neues Leben. Der Fall Maximilian von Mexiko. Vienna 2002.
  104. ^ Stefan Müller "Die Akte Maximilian" In. Die Zeit, 2 January 2014.
  105. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie (1866), Genealogy p. 2
  106. ^ Boettger, T. F. "Chevaliers de la Toisón d'Or – Knights of the Golden Fleece". La Confrérie Amicale. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  107. ^ "A Szent István Rend tagjai" Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  108. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1858), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 34, 48
  109. ^ Bayern (1858). Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1858. Landesamt. p. 9.
  110. ^ H. Tarlier (1854). Almanach royal officiel, publié, exécution d'un arrête du roi (in French). Vol. 1. p. 37.
  111. ^ Jørgen Pedersen (2009). Riddere af Elefantordenen, 1559–2009 (in Danish). Syddansk Universitetsforlag. p. 273. ISBN 978-87-7674-434-2.
  112. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Hannover (1865), "Königliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen" p. 38
  113. ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Hessen (1865), "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen" p. 10
  114. ^ Cibrario, Luigi (1869). Notizia storica del nobilissimo ordine supremo della santissima Annunziata. Sunto degli statuti, catalogo dei cavalieri (in Italian). Eredi Botta. p. 120. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  115. ^ Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen (1867) (in German), "Königliche Ritter-Orden", p. 4
  116. ^ Sveriges och Norges statskalender (in Swedish), 1866, p. 435, retrieved 4 April 2021 – via runeberg.org
  117. ^ Haslip 1972, p. 4.
  118. ^ O'Connor 1971, p. 31.
  119. ^ a b Ridley 2001, p. 45.

References

Further reading

  • Cunningham, Michele. Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III (2001) 251 pp. online PhD version
  • Hanna, Alfred Jackson, and Kathryn Abbey Hanna. Napoleon III and Mexico: American Triumph over Monarchy (1971).
  • Ibsen, Kristine (2010). Maximilian, Mexico, and the Invention of Empire. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. ISBN 978-0-8265-1688-6.
  • Krauze, Enrique (1997). Mexico: Biography of Power: A History of Modern Mexico, 1810-1996. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-016325-9
  • McAllen, M. M. (2015). Maximilian and Carlota: Europe's Last Empire in Mexico. San Antonio: Trinity University Press. ISBN 978-1-59534-183-9. excerpt
  • Shawcross, Edward. The Last Emperor of Mexico: A Disaster in the New World. London: Faber & Faber, 2022; The Last Emperor of Mexico: The Dramatic Story of the Habsburg Archduke Who Created a Kingdom in the New World. New York: Basic Books, 2021.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Maximilian_I_of_Mexico&oldid=1128874642"