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List of Ming dynasty era names

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“Seal of the Great Ming Emperor" (大明皇帝之寶), one of the Twenty-Four Imperial Seals (二十四御寶)

The Ming dynasty was the last unified dynasty founded by the Han ethnicity in Chinese history, which lasted for 276 years.[1] The Ming dynasty continued to use the emperor's era name since Emperor Wu of Han to record the year, using a total of 17 era names. Among them, the first era name used was the Hongwu era name, which was inaugurated by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, and the last era name was the Chongzhen era name, which was suspended after Zhu Youjian, the Chongzhen Emperor, hanged himself in Meishan during the Jiashen Incident; the longest in use was the Wanli era name, which lasted about 47 years and 7 months, and the shortest was the Taichang era name, which succeeded Wanli for only about 5 months.[2]

After the Jiashen Incident, the Ming imperial clan successively established the Southern Ming regimes in the Jiangnan area. The Ming imperial clan's last regime was eradicated after Zhu Youlang, the Yongli Emperor, was captured and killed. The Kingdom of Tungning, which regarded the Ming dynasty as zhengshuo (正朔, lit. "calendar promulgated by the first emperor of a dynasty"), eventually surrendered to the Qing dynasty.[3] The Southetn Ming used a total of 3 era names,[4] and each of the Southern Ming era names is also listed here.

Most emperors before the Ming dynasty used more than two era names during their reigns, until the yī shì yī yuán zhì (一世一元制; lit. "one-era-name-for-a-lifetime system") was established during the Hongwu Emperor's reign. Later emperors generally used only one era name, so among the people, the era name was used to refer to the emperor himself,[5] but Emperor Yingzong once used two era names.[2] The Ming dynasty era name did not change much, and the use time of the era name was relatively long on average.[6] The change of era began roughly the year after the new emperor ascended the throne, but there were a few special circumstances: for example, after Zhu Di's "Jingnan campaign" succeeded in 1402, the Jianwen era name was abolished in that year and was changed to the year of the Hongwu era name;[7][8] in 1457, after the "Duomen Coup" (奪門之變, "Storming of the Gates Incident"), the emperor emeritus Zhu Qizhen was restored, and the era was changed to "Tianshun" in that year.[9] It also happened that two edicts to change the era were promulgated in one year. For example, when the Wanli Emperor died in 1620, the Taichang Emperor ascended to the throne, and it was planned to use the Taichang era name next year (1621), but the Taichang Emperor died in the same year. The newly enthroned Tianqi Emperor adopted the opinions of the ministers, used the Taichang era name that year, and changed it to the Tianqi era name next year.[10] Because many of the era names of the Ming dynasty repeated the names of the previous dynasty, some also repeated the era name used by the peasant rebellion armies,[a] so that until the end of the Ming dynasty, some people still joked about this matter.[11]

During the Ming dynasty, outer vassals such as Joseon and the Ryukyu Kingdom also used the Ming dynasty era name. After the Joseon was forced to submit to the Qing dynasty in 1637, it used the Qing zhengshuo on the surface but secretly followed the Chongzhen era name to express the Joseon's ambition to respect the Ming and oppose the Qing.[12]

Because the interpretations of the Ming emperor's era names were mostly unrecorded in official announcements, the interpretation given by Feng Tianyu (馮天瑜) in Ming Qing nian hao tan wei (明清年號探微) is listed here for reference. The period of use of each era name comes from History of Ming, compiled by Zhang Tingyu, and Nan jiang yi shi (南疆繹史) written by Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨).

List

Era name Period of use
(Western calendar) 		Period of use
(Datong calendar 大統曆) 		Length of use Emperor Meaning Derived from Ref.
Hóngwǔ
洪武 		23 January 1368
–
5 February 1399 		Hongwu 1, 4th day of the 1st month
(洪武元年正月初四日)
–
Hongwu 31, 29th day of the 12th month
(洪武三十一年十二月二十九日) 		30 years,
12 months
and 27 days 		Hongwu Emperor "vastly martial" (None) [13][14][15]
Jiànwén
建文 		6 February 1399
–
29 July 1402 		Jianwen 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(建文元年正月初一日)
–
Jianwen 4, 29th day of the 6th month
(建文四年六月二十九日) 		3 years
and 6 months 		Jianwen Emperor "establishing civility" [13][15][16]
(Hóngwǔ)
洪武 		30 July 1402
–
22 January 1403 		Hongwu 35, 1st day of the 7th month
(洪武三十五年七月初一日)
–
Hongwu 35, 29th day of the 12th month
(洪武三十五年十二月二十九日) 		6 months Hongwu Emperor
(Yongle Emperor) 		(Ibid.) [13][16]
Yǒnglè
永樂 		23 January 1403
–
19 January 1425 		Yongle 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(永樂元年正月初一日)
–
Yongle 22, 30th day of the 12th month
(永樂二十二年十二月三十日) 		22 years Yongle Emperor "perpetual happiness" [13][16][17]
Hóngxī
洪熙 		20 January 1425
–
7 February 1426 		Hongxi 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(洪熙元年正月初一日)
–
Hongxi 1, 30th day of the 12th month
(洪熙元年十二月三十日) 		1 year Hongxi Emperor "vastly bright" [13][17][18]
Xuāndé
宣德 		8 February 1426
–
17 January 1436 		Xuande 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(宣德元年正月初一日)
–
Xuande 10, 29th day of the 12th month
(宣德十年十二月二十九日) 		10 years Xuande Emperor "proclamation of virtue" [13][18][19]
Zhèngtǒng
正統 		18 January 1436
–
13 January 1450 		Zhengtong 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(正統元年正月初一日)
–
Zhengtong 14, 30th day of the 12th month
(正統十四年十二月三十日) 		14 years Emperor Yingzong "right governance" [4][19][20]
14 January 1450
–
14 February 1457 		Jingtai 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(景泰元年正月初一日)
–
Jingtai 8, 20th day of the 1st month
(景泰八年正月二十日) 		7 years
and 20 days 		Jingtai Emperor "exalted view" [4][20][21]
Tiānshùn
天順 		15 February 1457
–
26 January 1465 		Tianshun 1, 21st day of the 1st month
(天順元年正月二十一日)
–
Tianshun 8, 29th day of the 12th month
(天順八年十二月二十九日) 		7 years,
11 months
and 9 days 		Emperor Yingzong "obedience to Heaven" [4][21][22]
Chénghuà
成化 		27 January 1465
–
13 January 1488 		Chenghua 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(成化元年正月初一日)
–
Chenghua 23, 30th day of the 12th month
(成化二十三年十二月三十日) 		23 years Chenghua Emperor "accomplished change" Wenzi, Daoyuan (道原): 大[b]常之道，生物而不有，成化而不宰。[24] [4][22][25]
Hóngzhì
弘治 		14 January 1488
–
23 January 1506 		Hongzhi 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(弘治元年正月初一日)
–
Hongzhi 18, 30th day of the 12th month
(弘治十八年十二月三十日) 		18 years Hongzhi Emperor "great governance" (None) [4][25][26]
Zhèngdé
正德 		24 January 1506
–
27 January 1522 		Zhengde 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(正德元年正月初一日)
–
Zhengde 16, 30th day of the 12th month
(正德十六年十二月三十日) 		16 years Zhengde Emperor "right virtue",
or "rectification of virtue"
  • Book of Documents, Yu Shu (虞書), Counsels of Great Yu (大禹謨): 禹曰：......正德、利用、厚生、惟和。[27] (Translated: Yu said, ......there are the rectification of (the people's) virtue, (the tools and other things) that supply the conveniences of life, and the securing abundant means of sustentation - these must be harmoniously attended to.)
  • Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents, Counsels of Great Yu (大禹謨): 正德者，自正其德，居上位者正己以治民。[28]
 [4][26][29]
Jiājìng
嘉靖 		28 January 1522
–
8 February 1567 		Jiajing 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(嘉靖元年正月初一日)
–
Jiajing 45, 30th day of the 12th month
(嘉靖四十五年十二月三十日) 		45 years Jiajing Emperor "admirable tranquility" Book of Documents, Zhou Shu (周書), Against Luxurious Ease (無逸): 周公曰：......不敢荒寧，嘉靖殷邦。[30] (Translated: The duke of Zhou said, ...He did not dare to indulge in useless ease, but admirably and tranquilly presided over the regions of Yin, ...) [4][29][31]
Longqing
隆慶 		9 February 1567
–
1 February 1573 		Longqing 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(隆慶元年正月初一日)
–
Longqing 6, 29th day of the 12th month
(隆慶六年十二月二十九日) 		6 years Longqing Emperor "great celebration" (None) [4][31][32]
Wànlì
萬曆 		2 February 1573
–
27 August 1620 		Wanli 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(萬曆元年正月初一日)
–
Wanli 48, 30th day of the 7th month
(萬曆四十八年七月三十日) 		47 years
and 7 months 		Wanli Emperor "ten thousand calendars" [4][32][33]
Tàichāng
泰昌 		28 August 1620
–
21 January 1621 		Taichang 1, 1st day of the 8th month
(泰昌元年八月初一日)
–
Taichang 1, 29th day of the 12th month
(泰昌元年十二月二十九日) 		5 months Taichang Emperor
(Tianqi Emperor) 		"grand prosperity" [4][33]
Tiānqǐ
天啓 		22 January 1621
–
4 February 1628 		Tianqi 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(天啓元年正月初一日)
–
Tianqi 7, 29th day of the 12th month
(天啓七年十二月二十九日) 		7 years Tianqi Emperor "heavenly opening" [4][33][34]
Chóngzhēn
崇禎 		5 February 1628
–
25 April 1644 		Chongzhen 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(崇禎元年正月初一日)
–
Chongzhen 17, 19th day of the 3rd month
(崇禎十七年三月十九日) 		16 years,
2 months
and 19 days 		Chongzhen Emperor "honorable and auspicious" [4][34][35]

Southern Ming era names

Era name Period of use
(Western calendar) 		Period of use
(Datong calendar 大統曆) 		Length of use Emperor Meaning Ref.
(Chongzhen
崇禎) 		19 June 1644
–
27 January 1645 		Chongzhen 17, 15th day of the 5th month
(崇禎十七年五月十五日)
–
Chongzhen 17, 30th day of the 12th month
(崇禎十七年十二月三十日) 		7 months
and 15 days 		Chongzhen Emperor
(Hongguang Emperor) 		(Ibid.) [4][36]
Hongguang
弘光 		28 January 1645
–
17 August 1645 		Hongguang 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(弘光元年正月初一日)
–
Hongguang 1, 26th day of the 6th leap month[c]
(弘光元年閏六月二十六日) 		6 months
and 26 days 		Hongguang Emperor "great light" [4][36][38]
Longwu
隆武 		18 August 1645
–
4 February 1647 		Longwu 1, 27th day of the 6th leap month
(隆武元年閏六月二十七日)
–
Longwu 2, 30th day of the 12th month
(隆武二年十二月三十日) 		1 year,
6 months
and 3 days 		Longwu Emperor "plentiful and martial" [4][38][39]
Yongli
永曆 		5 February 1647
–
1 June 1662[d] 		Yongli 1, 1st day of the 1st month
(永曆元年正月初一日)
–
Yongli 16, 15th day of the 4th month[d]
(永曆十六年四月十五日) 		15 years,
3 months
and 15 days[d] 		Yongli Emperor "perpetual calendar" [4][39][41]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ For example, the Yongle era name and the Yongle era name of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms' Zhang Yuxian and Fang La in the late Northern Song have the same name; the Tianshun era name and the Tianshun era name of the Red Coat Army (紅襖軍) in the late Jin (金) and the Tianshun Emperor of the Yuan dynasty have the same name; the Zhengde era name and the Zhengde era name of the Western Xia have the same name, etc.
  2. ^ Or 天[23][4][24]
  3. ^ The Prince of Lu (魯) regime continued to use the "Hongguang" era name until 15 February 1646 (Hongguang 1, 30th day of the 12th month; 弘光元年十二月三十日).[37]
  4. ^ a b c The Kingdom of Tungning adopted the "Yongli" era name until 15 September 1683 (Kangxi 22/Yongli 37, 25th day of the 7th month; 康熙二十二年／永曆三十七年七月二十五日), when it surrendered to Shi Lang because of its defeat at the Battle of Penghu. Therefore, the "Yongli" era name had been in total use for 36 years, 7 months, and 25 days.[40]

References

  1. ^ 徐俊 (2000). 中国古代王朝和政权名号探源. 武昌: 华中师范大学出版社. pp. 298–300. ISBN 978-7-5622-2277-4.
  2. ^ a b 馮 2016, pp. 25, 26.
  3. ^ 南炳文、湯綱 (2014). "第二十二章 南明政權及農民軍餘部的擁明抗清". 中國斷代史·明史. 上海人民出版社. pp. 1201–1314. ISBN 978-7-208-12480-6.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r 馮 2016, p. 26.
  5. ^ 王 2016, pp. 115.
  6. ^ 王 2016, pp. 116.
  7. ^ 張廷玉. 成祖一 . Vol. 5 – via Wikisource. （建文四年）秋七月壬午朔，大祀天地於南郊，奉太祖配。詔：「今年以洪武三十五年為紀，明年為永樂元年。建文中更改成法，一復舊制。山東、北平、河南被兵州縣，復徭役三年，未被兵者與鳳陽、淮安、徐、滁、揚三州蠲租一年，餘天下州縣悉蠲今年田租之半。」
    卷九下 . Vol. 9下 – via Wikisource. 洪武三十五年夏六月庚午，命五府六部，一應建文中所改易洪武政令格條悉復舊制，遂仍以洪武紀年，今年稱洪武三十五年。復諸殿門舊名，蓋建文中改謹身殿為正心殿，午門為端門，端門為應門，承天門為皋門，正前門為輅門。至是首命撤之，悉復其舊云。
  8. ^ 汪小虎、關增建 (June 2019). 明代建文年號的「革除」與未革之說再辨析. 上海: 上海交通大學學報(哲學主會科學版)第27卷. p. 84.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  9. ^ 張廷玉. 英宗後紀 . Vol. 12 – via Wikisource. （天順元年正月）丙戌，詔赦天下，改景泰八年為天順元年。論奪門迎復功，封石亨忠國公，張軏太平侯，張輗文安伯，楊善興濟伯，曹吉祥嗣子欽都督同知。
  10. ^ 汪小虎. 大明泰昌元年大統曆考 (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  11. ^ 沈德符. 萬曆野獲編 . Vol. 天順年號 – via Wikisource. 景泰七年秋，妖賊李珍者，浙之錢塘人也，為火居道士，聞苗賊作亂，往投之。遇武當山道士魏元衝於途，與言：「我有異相，汝隨我當富貴。」因同往苗賊執銀寨中，謂曰：「我唐太宗之後，生時有紫氣三晝夜。今聞空中人言，命我率兵征討天下，遂與元衝同至此。」苗賊俱順之。築臺偽稱皇帝，書 「天順」年號，封苗首等為侯及都司等官，率兵二萬至天柱，為都指揮湛清擒獲，解京磔之。不數月而上皇復辟，正用此紀年。萑符小寇，乃與聖主同號，蓋機兆亦非偶然。但「天順」二字，在遼穆宗已自稱為徽號。金宣宗時，蓋都楊安兒者，亦僭號天順。至故元泰定帝崩，其太子阿速吉人，即位於上都，亦以天順為年號。俱著之史冊。時武人石亨輩不足責，徐武功亦不學之甚矣！
    陳洪謨. 繼世紀聞 . Vol. 1 – via Wikisource. 弘治十八年乙丑五月，武宗皇帝即位，大赦天下，改元正德。人謂正德號前代有之，宋世西夏乾順嘗建此號也。時內閣大學士則劉少師健、李宮保東陽、謝宮保遷，與禮部官皆未之深考耳。馬塚宰文升因考科道，出題「宰相須用讀書人」，蓋指此也。
    劉若愚. 酌中志 . Vol. 22 – via Wikisource. 湯復著有《歷代年號考略》，以為我朝建元十六，而誤重前代者五、六，實詞臣失於參考之過也。
  12. ^ 孫衛國. 從正朔看朝鮮王朝尊明反清的正統意識. Archived from the original on 2022-07-01. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  13. ^ a b c d e f 馮 2016, p. 25.
  14. ^ Zhang Tingyu. Taizu 2 . Vol. 2 – via Wikisource. 洪武元年春正月乙亥，祀天地於南郊，即皇帝位。定有天下之號曰明，建元洪武。(Translated by Romeyn Taylor: On the twenty-third of January, 1368, T'ai-tsu sacrificed to Heaven and Earth on the Suburban Altars. When he assumed the imperial throne, he determined that the dynastic name under which he held the empire was to be Ming and that the new reign title was to be Hung-wu.)
  15. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Emperor Gongming . Vol. 4 – via Wikisource. 三十一年閏五月，太祖崩。辛卯，即皇帝位。大赦天下，以明年為建文元年。
  16. ^ a b c Zhang Tingyu. Chengzu 1 . Vol. 5 – via Wikisource. 秋七月壬午朔，大祀天地於南郊，奉太祖配。詔：「今年以洪武三十五年為紀，明年為永樂元年。建文中更改成法，一復舊制。山東、北平、河南被兵州縣，復徭役三年，未被兵者與鳳陽、淮安、徐、滁、揚三州蠲租一年，餘天下州縣悉蠲今年田租之半。」
  17. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Renzong . Vol. 8 – via Wikisource. 二十二年七月，成祖崩於榆木川。八月甲辰，遺詔至，遣皇太孫迎喪開平。丁未，出夏原吉等於獄。丁巳，即皇帝位。大赦天下，以明年為洪熙元年。
  18. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Xuanzong . Vol. 9 – via Wikisource. 仁宗即位，立為皇太子。夏四月，以南京地屢震，命往居守。五月庚辰，仁宗不豫，璽書召還。六月辛丑，還至良鄉，受遺詔，入宮發喪。庚戌，即皇帝位。大赦天下，以明年為宣德元年。
  19. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Yingzong Former Records . Vol. 10 – via Wikisource. 宣德十年春正月，宣宗崩，壬午，即皇帝位。遵遺詔大事白皇太后行。大赦天下，以明年為正統元年。
  20. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Emperor Jing . Vol. 11 – via Wikisource. 正統十四年秋八月，英宗北狩，皇太后命王監國。丙寅，移通州糧入京師。徵兩畿、山東、河南備倭運糧諸軍入衞，召寧陽侯陳懋帥師還。戊辰，兵部侍郎于謙為本部尚書。令羣臣直言時事，舉人材。己巳，皇太后詔立皇子見深為皇太子。卹陣亡將士。庚午，籍王振家。辛未，右都御史陳鎰撫安畿內軍民。壬申，都督石亨總京營兵。乙亥，諭邊將，瓦剌奉駕至，不得輕出。輸南京軍器於京師。修撰商輅、彭時入閣預機務。是月，廣東賊黃蕭養作亂。九月癸未，王即皇帝位，遙尊皇帝為太上皇帝，以明年為景泰元年，大赦天下，免景泰二年田租十之三。
  21. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Yingzong Later Records . Vol. 12 – via Wikisource. 丙戌，詔赦天下，改景泰八年為天順元年。論奪門迎復功，封石亨忠國公，張軏太平侯，張輗文安伯，楊善興濟伯，曹吉祥嗣子欽都督同知。
  22. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Xianzong . Vol. 13 – via Wikisource. 天順八年正月，英宗崩。乙亥，即皇帝位。以明年為成化元年，大赦天下。
  23. ^ 馮天瑜《明清年號探微》誤作「天」。
  24. ^ a b Wenzi. 道原 . Vol. 1 – via Wikisource. 大常之道，生物而不有，成化而不宰。
  25. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Xiaozong . Vol. 15 – via Wikisource. 二十三年八月，憲宗崩。九月壬寅，即皇帝位。大赦天下，以明年為弘治元年。
  26. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Wuzong . Vol. 16 – via Wikisource. 十八年五月，孝宗崩。壬寅，即皇帝位。以明年為正德元年，大赦天下，除弘治十六年以前逋賦。
  27. ^ 大禹謨  – via Wikisource.
  28. ^ Kong Yingda. 尚書注疏卷第四 . Vol. 4 – via Wikisource.
  29. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Shizong 1 . Vol. 17 – via Wikisource. 十六年三月辛酉，未除服，特命襲封。丙寅，武宗崩，無嗣，慈壽皇太后與大學士楊廷和定策，遣太監谷大用、韋彬、張錦，大學士梁儲，定國公徐光祚，駙馬都尉崔元，禮部尚書毛澄，以遺詔迎王於興邸。夏四月癸未，發安陸。癸卯，至京師，止於郊外。禮官具儀，請如皇太子即位禮。王顧長史袁宗皐曰：「遺詔以我嗣皇帝位，非皇子也。」大學士楊廷和等請如禮臣所具儀，由東安門入居文華殿，擇日登極。不允。會皇太后趣羣臣上箋勸進，乃即郊外受箋。是日，日中，入自大明門，遣官告宗廟社稷，謁大行皇帝几筵，朝皇太后，出御奉天殿，即皇帝位。
  30. ^ 無逸  – via Wikisource.
  31. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Muzong . Vol. 19 – via Wikisource. 四十五年十二月庚子，世宗崩。壬子，即皇帝位。以明年為隆慶元年，大赦天下。
  32. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Shenzong 1 . Vol. 20 – via Wikisource. 六年五月，穆宗崩。六月乙卯朔，日有食之。甲子，即皇帝位。以明年為萬曆元年，詔赦天下。
  33. ^ a b c Zhang Tingyu. Xizong . Vol. 22 – via Wikisource. 庚辰，即皇帝位。詔赦天下，以明年為天啟元年。己丑，以是年八月以後稱泰昌元年。
  34. ^ a b Zhang Tingyu. Emperor Zhuanglie 1 . Vol. 23 – via Wikisource. 明年八月，熹宗疾大漸，召王入，受遺命。丁巳，即皇帝位。大赦天下，以明年為崇禎元年。
  35. ^ Zhang Tingyu. Emperor Zhuanglie 2 . Vol. 24 – via Wikisource. 丁未，昧爽，內城陷。帝崩於萬歲山，王承恩從死。
  36. ^ a b Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨). 福王上 . Vol. 1 – via Wikisource. 五月……壬寅，王即位。大赦，稱號弘光；以明年為元年。
  37. ^ 南沙三余氏. 魯監國載略 . Vol. 附錄 – via Wikisource. （弘光元年閏六月）時兵部尚書張國維已至台州，與鄭遵謙、陳函輝、宋之普、柯夏卿、方國安、熊汝霖、孫嘉績等迎魯王至紹興，即監國位。朱大典亦遣孫玨上表勸進。於是以分守公署為行在，以明年為監國元年，是年仍用弘光年號。
    《南明史·監國魯王》：「（弘光元年七月）癸丑，群臣三奉箋勸進，不許。頒監國諭，大赦，祭告天地祖宗，仍用弘光年號，以明年為監國魯元年。」轉錄自錢海岳《南明史》，中華書局，2006年，第287頁。
  38. ^ a b Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨). 唐王 . Vol. 3 – via Wikisource. 閏六月……丁未，祭告天地、祖宗，即位南郊。以福建為福京、福州為天興府、布政司為行殿。大赦，稱號隆武。……大清順治三年春正月己酉朔，唐王在建寧，稱隆武二年。
  39. ^ a b Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨). 永明王上 . Vol. 4 – via Wikisource. 十一月癸卯朔，觀生與布政使顧元鏡、總兵林察等擁聿𨮁入廣州城自立，偽號紹武。……至是，定議迎還，於庚申即位，稱號永曆。……大清順治四年春正月癸卯朔，永明王在梧州，稱永曆元年。
  40. ^ 李瑤. 繹史摭遺卷十 . Vol. 摭遺卷10 – via Wikisource. 康熙二十二年……秋七月甲午，國軒以鄭氏降，繳上成功所遺延平郡王、漳國公、招討大將軍、忠孝伯、御營都督等印信，除道出迎。
  41. ^ Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨). 永明王下 . Vol. 5 – via Wikisource. 大清順治十八年春正月辛亥朔，王在緬甸，稱永曆十五年。……明年三月丙戌，至雲南府。夏四月望日戊午，王終，年三十又八；妃與王子俱從死。

Bibliography

  • 李兆洛 (March 1970). 歷代紀元編. 臺灣中華書局.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • 牟復禮、崔瑞德編 (February 1992). 劍橋中國明代史. 中國社會科學出版社. ISBN 7-5004-1011-5.
  • 丁福保原編, 馬定祥批注 (August 1992). 歷代古錢圖說. 上海人民出版社. ISBN 7-208-01435-3.
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  • 劉迎秋 (June 2014). 中國帝王年號的語言文化研究——兼論日、朝、越年號特點 (廣西大學碩士學位論文 ed.). 廣西大學.
  • 冯天瑜 (2016). 桂莉 (ed.). "明清年号探微" (PDF). 武漢大學學報. 69 (3): 25–26. doi:10.14086/j.cnki.wujhs.2016.03.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-06-25. Retrieved 2021-10-10.
  • 王旗 (June 2016). 年號：你應該知道的歷史常識 (文史雜誌2016年第3期 ed.). 四川省文史研究館.
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