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Primordial black holes (also abbreviated as PBH) are hypothetical black holes that formed soon after the Big Bang. In the extreme environment of the inflationary era universe, extremely dense pockets of sub-atomic matter were tightly packed to the point of gravitational collapse, creating a primordial black hole without the dense external compression needed to make black holes today. Because the creation of primordial black holes pre-dates that of the first stars, they are not limited to the narrow mass range of stellar black holes. Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov in 1966 first proposed the existence of such black holes, while the first in-depth study was conducted by Stephen Hawking in 1971. However, their existence has not been proven and remains theoretical

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Theoretical history

Depending on the model, primordial black holes could have initial masses ranging from 10−8 kg[1] (the so-called Planck relics) to more than thousands of solar masses. However, primordial black holes originally having mass lower than 1011 kg would not have survived to the present due to Hawking radiation, which causes complete evaporation in a time much shorter than the age of the Universe.[2] Primordial black holes are non-baryonic,[3] and as such are plausible dark matter candidates.[4][5][6][7][8] Primordial black holes are also good candidates for being the seeds of the supermassive black holes at the center of massive galaxies, as well as of intermediate-mass black holes.[9]

Primordial black holes belong to the class of massive compact halo objects (MACHOs). They are naturally a good dark matter candidate: they are (nearly) collision-less and stable (if sufficiently massive), they have non-relativistic velocities, and they form very early in the history of the Universe (typically less than one second after the Big Bang).[10] Nevertheless, critics maintain that tight limits on their abundance have been set up from various astrophysical and cosmological observations, which would exclude that they contribute significantly to dark matter over most of the plausible mass range.[11] However, new research has provided for the possibility again, whereby these black holes would sit in clusters with a 30-solar-mass primordial black hole at the center.[12][13]

In March 2016, one month after the announcement of the detection by Advanced LIGO/VIRGO of gravitational waves emitted by the merging of two 30 solar mass black holes (about 6×1031 kg), three groups of researchers proposed independently that the detected black holes had a primordial origin.[14][15][16][17] Two of the groups found that the merging rates inferred by LIGO are consistent with a scenario in which all the dark matter is made of primordial black holes, if a non-negligible fraction of them are somehow clustered within halos such as faint dwarf galaxies or globular clusters, as expected by the standard theory of cosmic structure formation. The third group claimed that these merging rates are incompatible with an all-dark-matter scenario and that primordial black holes could only contribute to less than one percent of the total dark matter. The unexpected large mass of the black holes detected by LIGO has strongly revived interest in primordial black holes with masses in the range of 1 to 100 solar masses. It is still debated whether this range is excluded or not by other observations, such as the absence of micro-lensing of stars,[18] the cosmic microwave background anisotropies, the size of faint dwarf galaxies, and the absence of correlation between X-ray and radio sources towards the galactic center.

In May 2016, Alexander Kashlinsky suggested that the observed spatial correlations in the unresolved gamma-ray and X-ray background radiations could be due to primordial black holes with similar masses, if their abundance is comparable to that of dark matter.[19]

In April 2019, a study was published suggesting this hypothesis may be a dead end. An international team of researchers has put a theory speculated by the late Stephen Hawking to its most rigorous test to date, and their results have ruled out the possibility that primordial black holes smaller than a tenth of a millimeter (7 × 1022 kg) make up most of dark matter.[20][21]

In August 2019, a study was published opening up the possibility of making up all dark matter with asteroid-mass primordial black holes (3.5 × 10−17 – 4 × 10−12 solar masses, or 7 × 1013 – 8 × 1018 kg).[22]

In September 2019, a report by James Unwin and Jakub Scholtz proposed the possibility of a primordial black hole (PBH) with mass 5–15 ME (Earth masses), about the diameter of a tennis ball, existing in the extended Kuiper Belt to explain the orbital anomalies that are theorized to be the result of a 9th planet in the solar system.[23][24]

In October 2019, Derek Inman and Yacine Ali-Haïmoud published an article in which they discovered that the nonlinear velocities  which arise from the structure formation are too small to significantly affect the constraints that arise from CMB anisotropies

In September 2021, the NANOGrav collaboration announced that they had found a low-frequency signal that could be attributed to Gravitational Waves that could potentially be associated with PBH's, so far it hasn't been confirmed as a GW signal

In September 2022, primordial black holes were used to explain the unexpected very large early (high redshift) galaxies discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope.[25][26]


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Formation

Formation of the universe with and without primordial black holes

Primordial black holes could have formed in the very early Universe (less than one second after the Big Bang), during the so-called radiation dominated era. The essential ingredient for the formation of a primordial black hole is a fluctuation in the density of the Universe, inducing its gravitational collapse. One typically requires density contrasts (where is the density of the Universe) to form a black hole.[27]


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Production mechanisms

There are several mechanisms able to produce such inhomogeneities in the context of cosmic inflation (in hybrid inflation models) some examples include

Axion Inflation

Axion inflation is a theoretical model in which the axion acts as an inflaton field and because of the time period its created at, the field is oscillating at its minimal potential energy, these oscillations are responsible for the energy density fluctuations in the early universe.

Reheating

Reheating is the transitory process between the inflationary and hot, dense, radiation-dominated period. During this time the inflaton field decays into other particles and these particles begin to interact in order to reach thermal equillibrium. However, if this process is incomplete it creates density fluctuations and if these are big enough they could be responsible for the formation of PBH.

Cosmological phase transitions

Cosmological phase transitions may cause inhomogeneities in different ways depending on the specific details of each transition. For example, one mechanism is concerned with the collapse of overdense regions that arise from these phase transitions, while another mechanism involves highly energetic particles that are produced in these phase transitions and then go through gravitational collapse forming PBH’s.


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Facilities able to provide PBH measurements

None of these facilities are focused on the direct detection of PBH due to them being a theoretical phenomenon, but the information collected in each respective experiment provides secondary data which can help provide insight and constraints on the nature of PBH

GW-detectors

  • LIGO/VIRGO- These detectors already place important constraints on the limits of PBH’s. But they’re always in the search for new unexpected signals, if they detect a black hole in the mass range that does not correspond to stellar evolution theory it could serve as evidence for PBH’s.
  • Cosmic Explorer/Einstein Telescope- Both of these projects serve as the next generation of LIGO/VIRGO, these would increase sensitivity around the 10-100 Hz band and would allow to probe PBH information at higher redshifts
  • NANOGrav-This collaboration detected a stochastic signal but it is not yet a certified gravitational wave signal since quadrupolar correlations have not been detected. But, should this be confirmed, it could serve as evidence for sub-solar mass PBH’s.
  • Laser Interferometer Space Antenna(LISA)- Like any GW detector, LISA has great potential to detect PBH’s. The uniqueness of LISA lies with the ability to detect extreme mass ratio inspirals  when low mass black holes merge with massive objects. Due to its sensitivity it will also allow for the detection and confirmation of the stochastic NANOGrav signal.
  • AEDGE Atomic Experiment for Dark Matter and Gravity Exploration in Space- This proposed mid-range gravitational wave experiment has a uniqueness which lies in its detection ability of intermediate mass ratio mergers like the ones theorized during early supermassive black hole assembly, should the detection of these happen it would serve as evidence for PBH’s.

Space telescopes

  • Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (WFIRST)- As a space telescope, WFIRST will have the capacity of detecting or at least placing constraints on PBH’s through different types of lensing, one of which is Astrometric Lensing. When an object passes in front of a known light source, such as a star, it slightly (to the order of microarcseconds) shifts its position and this is known as Astrometric lensing.

Sky Surveys

  • Vera C. Rubin Observatory (LSST)- This will provide the capability of directly measuring the mass function of compact objects by microlensing. It will be able to observe both low and high-mass objects thus placing constraints on both sides of the spectrum. LSST will also have the ability to detect Kilonovae that lack gravitational wave signals which is related to the existence of PBH’s.

Very Large Arrays

  • ngVLA- the next generation Very Large Array will be able to improve GW bounds by a magnitude of the current contraints placed by the NANOGrav. This increased sensitivity will be able to confirm the nature of the GW signal from NANOGrav. It will also be able to discriminate a PBH explanation from other sources.

Fast Radio Bursts observatories

MeV Gamma-Ray Telescopes

  • Since the MeV gamma-ray band has yet to be explored, proposed experiments could place tighter constraints on the abundance of PBH’s in the asteroid-mass range. Some examples of the proposed telescopes include:
    • AdEPT
    • AMEGO
    • All-Sky ASTROGAM
    • GECCO
    • GRAMS
    • MAST
    • PANGU

GeV and TeV Gamma-Ray Observatories


added a new section on facilities that can provide information about PBH nature article

References

  1. ^ Carr, B.J.; Hawking, S.W. (2004). "Black holes in the early Universe". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 168 (2): 399–416. arXiv:astro-ph/0407207. Bibcode:1974MNRAS.168..399C. doi:10.1093/mnras/168.2.399.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  2. ^ del Barco, Oscar (2021). "Primordial black hole origin for thermal gamma-ray bursts". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 506 (1): 806–812. arXiv:2007.11226. Bibcode:2021MNRAS.506..806B. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1747.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  3. ^ Overduin, J. M.; Wesson, P. S. (November 2004). "Dark Matter and Background Light". Physics Reports. 402 (5–6): 267–406. arXiv:astro-ph/0407207. Bibcode:2004PhR...402..267O. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.07.006. S2CID 1634052.
  4. ^ Frampton, Paul H.; Kawasaki, Masahiro; Takahashi, Fuminobu; Yanagida, Tsutomu T. (22 April 2010). "Primordial Black Holes as All Dark Matter". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2010 (4): 023. arXiv:1001.2308. Bibcode:2010JCAP...04..023F. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2010/04/023. ISSN 1475-7516. S2CID 119256778.
  5. ^ Espinosa, J. R.; Racco, D.; Riotto, A. (23 March 2018). "A Cosmological Signature of the Standard Model Higgs Vacuum Instability: Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter". Physical Review Letters. 120 (12): 121301. arXiv:1710.11196. Bibcode:2018PhRvL.120l1301E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.120.121301. PMID 29694085. S2CID 206309027.
  6. ^ Clesse, Sebastien; García-Bellido, Juan (2018). "Seven Hints for Primordial Black Hole Dark Matter". Physics of the Dark Universe. 22: 137–146. arXiv:1711.10458. Bibcode:2018PDU....22..137C. doi:10.1016/j.dark.2018.08.004. S2CID 54594536.
  7. ^ Lacki, Brian C.; Beacom, John F. (12 August 2010). "Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter: Almost All or Almost Nothing". The Astrophysical Journal. 720 (1): L67 – L71. arXiv:1003.3466. Bibcode:2010ApJ...720L..67L. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/720/1/L67. ISSN 2041-8205. S2CID 118418220.
  8. ^ Kashlinsky, A. (23 May 2016). "LIGO gravitational wave detection, primordial black holes and the near-IR cosmic infrared background anisotropies". The Astrophysical Journal. 823 (2): L25. arXiv:1605.04023. Bibcode:2016ApJ...823L..25K. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/823/2/L25. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 118491150.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ Clesse, S.; Garcia-Bellido, J. (2015). "Massive Primordial Black Holes from Hybrid Inflation as Dark Matter and the seeds of Galaxies". Physical Review D. 92 (2): 023524. arXiv:1501.07565. Bibcode:2015PhRvD..92b3524C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.92.023524. hdl:10486/674729. S2CID 118672317.
  10. ^ Sokol, Joshua (2020-09-23). "Physicists Argue That Black Holes From the Big Bang Could Be the Dark Matter". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved 2021-09-06.
  11. ^ Ali-Haïmoud, Yacine; Kovetz, Ely D.; Kamionkowski, Marc (2017-12-19). "The merger rate of primordial-black-hole binaries". Physical Review D. 96 (12): 123523. arXiv:1709.06576. Bibcode:2017PhRvD..96l3523A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.96.123523. ISSN 2470-0010. S2CID 119419981.
  12. ^ Jedamzik, Karsten (2020-09-14). "Primordial Black Hole Dark Matter and the LIGO/Virgo observations". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2020 (9): 022. arXiv:2006.11172. Bibcode:2020JCAP...09..022J. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/09/022. ISSN 1475-7516. S2CID 219956276.
  13. ^ Jedamzik, Karsten (September 2020). "Primordial black hole dark matter and the LIGO/Virgo observations". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2020 (9): 022. arXiv:2006.11172. Bibcode:2020JCAP...09..022J. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/09/022. ISSN 1475-7516. S2CID 219956276.
  14. ^ Bird, S.; Cholis, I. (2016). "Did LIGO Detect Dark Matter?". Physical Review Letters. 116 (20): 201301. arXiv:1603.00464. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116t1301B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.201301. PMID 27258861. S2CID 23710177.
  15. ^ Clesse, S.; Garcia-Bellido, J. (2017). "The clustering of massive Primordial Black Holes as Dark Matter: Measuring their mass distribution with Advanced LIGO". Physics of the Dark Universe. 10 (2016): 142–147. arXiv:1603.05234. Bibcode:2017PDU....15..142C. doi:10.1016/j.dark.2016.10.002. S2CID 119201581.
  16. ^ Sasaki, M.; Suyama, T.; Tanaki, T. (2016). "Primordial Black Hole Scenario for the Gravitational-Wave Event GW150914". Physical Review Letters. 117 (6): 061101. arXiv:1603.08338. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.117f1101S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.061101. PMID 27541453. S2CID 7362051.
  17. ^ "Did Gravitational Wave Detector Find Dark Matter?". Johns Hopkins University. June 15, 2016. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
  18. ^ Khalouei, E.; Ghodsi, H.; Rahvar, S.; Abedi, J. (2021-04-02). "Possibility of primordial black holes as the source of gravitational wave events in the advanced LIGO detector". Physical Review D. 103 (8): 084001. arXiv:2011.02772. Bibcode:2021PhRvD.103h4001K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.103.084001. S2CID 226254110.
  19. ^ Kashlinsky, A. (2016). "LIGO gravitational wave detection, primordial black holes and the near-IR cosmic infrared background anisotropies". The Astrophysical Journal. 823 (2): L25. arXiv:1605.04023. Bibcode:2016ApJ...823L..25K. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/823/2/L25. S2CID 118491150.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  20. ^ "Dark matter is not made up of tiny black holes". ScienceDaily. 2 April 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2019.
  21. ^ Niikura, H.; Takada, M.; Yasuda, N.; et al. (2019). "Microlensing constraints on primordial black holes with Subaru/HSC Andromeda observations". Nature Astronomy. 3 (6): 524–534. arXiv:1701.02151. Bibcode:2019NatAs...3..524N. doi:10.1038/s41550-019-0723-1. S2CID 118986293.
  22. ^ Montero-Camacho, Paulo; Fang, Xiao; Vasquez, Gabriel; Silva, Makana; Hirata, Christopher M. (2019-08-23). "Revisiting constraints on asteroid-mass primordial black holes as dark matter candidates". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2019 (8): 031. arXiv:1906.05950. Bibcode:2019JCAP...08..031M. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/08/031. ISSN 1475-7516. S2CID 189897766.
  23. ^ Scholtz, J.; Unwin, J. (2019). What if Planet 9 is a Primordial Black Hole?. High Energy Physics - Phenomenology (Report). arXiv:1909.11090.
  24. ^ Anderson, D.; Hunt, B. (5 December 2019). "Why astrophysicists think there's a black hole in our solar system". Business Insider. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  25. ^ Liu, Boyuan; Bromm, Volker (2022-09-27). "Accelerating Early Massive Galaxy Formation with Primordial Black Holes". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 937 (2). doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac927f/meta. ISSN 2041-8205.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  26. ^ Yuan, Guan-Wen; Lei, Lei; Wang, Yuan-Zhu; Wang, Bo; Wang, Yi-Ying; Chen, Chao; Shen, Zhao-Qiang; Cai, Yi-Fu; Fan, Yi-Zhong (2023-03-16). "Rapidly growing primordial black holes as seeds of the massive high-redshift JWST Galaxies". arXiv:2303.09391 [astro-ph, physics:gr-qc].
  27. ^ Harada, T.; Yoo, C.-M.; Khori, K. (2013). "Threshold of primordial black hole formation". Physical Review D. 88 (8): 084051. arXiv:1309.4201. Bibcode:2013PhRvD..88h4051H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.88.084051. S2CID 119305036.
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