Irish orthography
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Irish orthography is the set of conventions used to write Irish. A spelling reform in the mid-20th century led to An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, the modern standard written form used by the Government of Ireland, which regulates both spelling and grammar.[1] The reform removed inter-dialectal silent letters, simplified some letter sequences, and modernised archaic spellings to reflect modern pronunciation but it also removed letters pronounced in some dialects but not in others.
Irish spelling represents all Irish dialects to a high degree despite their considerable phonological variation, e.g. crann ("tree") is read /kɾˠan̪ˠ/ in Mayo and Ulster, /kɾˠaːn̪ˠ/ in Galway, or /kɾˠəun̪ˠ/ in Munster. Some words may have dialectal pronunciations not reflected by their standard spelling, they may have dialectal spellings to reflect this.
Alphabet
Latin script has been the writing system used to write Irish since the 5th century, when it replaced Ogham which was used to write Primitive Irish and Old Irish.[2] Prior the mid-20th century Gaelic type (cló Gaelach) was the main typeface used to write Irish, now it is usually replaced by Roman type (cló Rómhánach). The use of Ogham and Gaelic type today is restricted to decorative or self-consciously traditional contexts. The dot above a lenited letter in Gaelic type is usually replaced by a following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type (e.g. ⟨ċ⟩ → ⟨ch⟩).
Letters and letter names
The traditional Irish alphabet (aibítir) consists of 18 letters: ⟨a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u⟩. It does not contain ⟨j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z⟩, although they are used in scientific terminology and modern loanwords/words of foreign origin. ⟨v⟩ occurs in a small number of (mainly onomatopoeic) native words (e.g. vácarnach "to quack" and vrác "caw") and colloquialisms (e.g. víog for bíog "chirp" and vís for bís "screw").[3] ⟨h⟩, when not prefixed to a word initial vowel to show aspiration or after a consonant to show lenition, primarily occurs word initially in loanwords, e.g. hata "hat". ⟨k⟩ is the only letter not listed by Ó Dónaill.
Vowels may be accented with an acute accent (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩; see below).[4] Accented letters are considered variants of their unaccented equivalent so they are ignored for purposes of alphabetisation, they follow their unaccented equivalents in dictionaries (i.e. a, á…abhac, ábhacht, abhaile...).
English letter names are generally used in colloquial and formal speech but there are modern Irish letter names (based on the original Latin names), similar to other languages that use a Latin script alphabet. Tree names were historically used to name the letters. Tradition taught that they all derived from the names of Ogham letters, though it is now known that only some of the earliest were named after trees.
| Letter | Name | Name
(IPA) |
Tree Name (Bríatharogam) | Ogham equivalent | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aa | á a | /aː/ | ailm (pine) | ᚐ | |
| Bb | bé | /bʲeː/ | beith (birch) | ᚁ | |
| Cc | cé | /ceː/ | coll (hazel) | ᚉ | |
| Dd | dé | /dʲeː/ | dair (oak) | ᚇ | |
| Ee | é a | /eː/ | eadhadh (poplar) | ᚓ | |
| Ff | eif | /ɛfʲ/ | fearn (alder) | ᚃ | |
| Gg | gé | /ɟeː/ | gort (ivy) | ᚌ | |
| Hh | héis | /heːʃ/ | uath (hawthorn) | ᚆ | |
| Ii | í a | /iː/ | iodhadh (yew) | ᚔ | |
| Jj | jé | /dʒeː/ | [dʒ] is a foreign sound. | ||
| Kk | cá | /kaː/ | |||
| Ll | eil | /ɛlʲ/ | luis (rowan) | ᚂ | |
| Mm | eim | /ɛmʲ/ | muin (vine) | ᚋ | |
| Nn | ein | /ɛnʲ/ | nion (ash) | ᚅ | |
| Oo | ó a | /oː/ | onn (gorse) | ᚑ | |
| Pp | pé | /pʲeː/ | ifín (gooseberry or thorn) | ᚘ | See forfeda. |
| peith (dwarf alder) | ᚚ | ||||
| cú | /kuː/ | ᚊ | ⟨Q⟩ is used to transliterate ceirt (apple). | ||
| Rr | ear | /aɾˠ/ | ruis (elder) | ᚏ | |
| Ss | eas | /asˠ/ | sail (willow) | ᚄ | |
| Tt | té | /tʲeː/ | tinne (holly) | ᚈ | |
| Uu | ú a | /uː/ | úr (heather) | ᚒ | |
| Vv | vé | /vʲeː/ | |||
| Ww | wae | /weː/ | |||
| Xx | eacs | /ɛksˠ/ | |||
| Yy | yé | /jeː/ | |||
| Zz | zae | /zˠeː/ | ᚎ | ⟨Z⟩ is used to transliterate straif (blackthorn); [zˠ] is a foreign sound. |
Grapheme to phoneme correspondence
Table key and guide
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Examples(s) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | ||||
| a | 1 | usually | /a/ | fan /fˠanˠ/ "stay" (imper.) | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | garda /ˈɡaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ "policeman", tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠl̪ˠuː/ "happening", carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/ "(small) heap", barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ "tip, point" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əu/ | mall /mˠaːl̪ˠ/ "slow, late", ann /aːn̪ˠ/ "there", am /aːmˠ/ "time" | ||
| 2 | /ə/ | ólann /ˈoːlˠən̪ˠ/ "drink" (present), mála /ˈmˠaːlˠə/ "bag" | ||||
Grapheme to phoneme correspondence tables on this page follow the layout shown above, in this layout ⟨U⟩ stands for Mayo and Ulster Irish, ⟨C⟩ for southern Connacht Irish, and ⟨M⟩ for Munster Irish. In the consonant & exceptions in verb forms tables, 1 and 2 stand for broad and slender, respectively, while in the vowel tables they stand for stressed and unstressed. Initially and finally mean word initial or final unless stated otherwise. /∅/ means silent, i.e. that the letter(s) are not pronounced. The IPA transcriptions of examples on this page are in Connacht Irish.
See Irish phonology for an explanation of the symbols used and Irish initial mutations for an explanation of eclipsis and lenition.
Consonants
Consonants are "broad" (velarised) when beside ⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩ and "slender" (palatalised) when beside ⟨e, é, i, í⟩.
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | |||||
| b | 1 | /bˠ/ | bain /bˠanʲ/ "take" (imper.), scuab /sˠkuəbˠ/ "broom" | ||||
| 2 | /bʲ/ | béal /bʲeːl̪ˠ/ "mouth", cnáib /knˠaːbʲ/ "hemp" | |||||
| bh | 1 | /enwiki/w/ | bhain /wanʲ/ "took", ábhar /ˈaːwəɾˠ/ "material", dubhaigh /ˈd̪ˠʊwiː/ "blacken" (imper.), taobh /t̪ˠiːw/ "side", dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black" | ||||
| 2 | /vʲ/ | bhéal /vʲeːlˠ/ "mouth" (lenited), cuibhreann /ˈkɪvʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ "common table", aibhneacha /ˈavʲnʲəxə/ "rivers", sibh /ʃɪvʲ/ "you" (pl.) | |||||
| See below for ⟨(e)abh, (e)obh, (i)ubh⟩ | |||||||
| bhf (eclipsis of ⟨f⟩) |
1 | /enwiki/w/ | bhfuinneog /ˈwɪn̠ʲoːɡ/ "window" (eclipsed) | ||||
| 2 | /vʲ/ | bhfíon /vʲiːnˠ/ "wine" (eclipsed) | |||||
| bp (eclipsis of ⟨p⟩) |
1 | /bˠ/ | bpoll /bˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole" (eclipsed) | ||||
| 2 | /bʲ/ | bpríosún /ˈbʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/ "prison" (eclipsed) | |||||
| c | 1 | /k/ | cáis /kaːʃ/ "cheese", mac /mˠak/ "son" | ||||
| 2 | /c/ | ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ "question", mic /mʲɪc/ "sons" | |||||
| ch | 1 | /x/ | cháis /xaːʃ/ "cheese" (lenited), taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ "chieftain, Prime Minister of Ireland" | ||||
| 2 | before ⟨t⟩ | boichte /bˠɔxtʲə/ "poorer" | |||||
| usually | /ç/ | cheist /çɛʃtʲ/ "question" (lenited), deich /dʲɛç/ "ten", oíche /ˈiːçə/ "night" | |||||
| d | 1 | /d̪ˠ/ | dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist", nead /n̠ʲad̪ˠ/ "nest" | ||||
| 2 | /dʲ/ | dearg /dʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red", cuid /kɪdʲ/ "part" | |||||
| dh | 1 | initially | /ɣ/ | dhorn /ɣoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist" (lenited) | |||
| elsewhere | /∅/ | ádh /aː/ "luck" | |||||
| 2 | usually | /j/ | dhearg /ˈjaɾˠəɡ/ "red" (lenited), fáidh /fˠaːj/ "prophet" | ||||
| finally | /j/ | /∅/ | /ɟ/ | ||||
| See below for ⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, eidh, odh, oidh⟩. See Exceptions in verb forms for -⟨dh⟩ at the end of verbs endings. | |||||||
| dt | 1 | eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ | /d̪ˠ/ | dtaisce /ˈd̪ˠaʃcə/ "treasure" (eclipsed) | |||
| elsewhere | /t̪ˠ/ | troidte /ˈt̪ˠɾˠɛtʲə/ "fought" | |||||
| 2 | eclipsis of ⟨t⟩ | /dʲ/ | dtír /dʲiːɾʲ/ "country" (eclipsed) | ||||
| elsewhere | /tʲ/ | goidte /ˈɡɛtʲə/ "stolen" | |||||
| f | 1 | /fˠ/ | fós /fˠoːsˠ/ "still", graf /ɡɾˠafˠ/ "graph" | ||||
| 2 | /fʲ/ | fíon /fʲiːnˠ/ "wine", stuif /sˠt̪ˠɪfʲ/ "stuff" | |||||
| See Exceptions in verb forms for -⟨f⟩- in future and conditional personal verb endings. | |||||||
| fh | /∅/ | fhuinneog /ˈɪn̠ʲoːɡ/ "window" (lenited), fhíon /iːnˠ/ "wine" (lenited) | |||||
| g | 1 | /ɡ/ | gasúr /ˈɡasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy", bog /bˠɔɡ/ "soft" | ||||
| 2 | /ɟ/ | geata /ˈɟat̪ˠə/ "gate", carraig /ˈkaɾˠəɟ/ "rock" | |||||
| gc (eclipsis of ⟨c⟩) |
1 | /ɡ/ | gcáis /ɡaːʃ/ "cheese" (eclipsed) | ||||
| 2 | /ɟ/ | gceist /ɟɛʃtʲ/ "question" (eclipsed) | |||||
| gh | 1 | initially | /ɣ/ | ghasúr /ˈɣasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy" (lenited) | |||
| elsewhere | /∅/ | Eoghan /ˈoːənˠ/ (male name) | |||||
| 2 | usually | /j/ | gheata /ˈjat̪ˠə/ "gate" (lenited), dóigh /d̪ˠoːj/ "way, manner" | ||||
| finally | /j/ | /∅/ | /ɟ/ | ||||
| See below for ⟨(e)agh, (a)igh, eigh, ogh, oigh⟩. See Exceptions in verb forms for -⟨(a)igh⟩ at the end of verbs. | |||||||
| h | /h/ | hata /ˈhat̪ˠə/ "hat", na héisc /nə heːʃc/ "the fish" (plural) | |||||
| j (loan consonant) | /dʒ/ | jab /ˈdʒabˠ/ "job", jíp /dʒiːpʲ/ "jeep" | |||||
| l | 1 | initially | usually | /l̪ˠ/ | luí /l̪ˠiː/ "lying (down)" | ||
| lenited | /lˠ/ | lann /lˠaːn̪ˠ/ "blade" (lenited) | |||||
| elsewhere | /lˠ/ or /l̪ˠ/ | béal /bʲeːlˠ/ "mouth" | |||||
| 2 | initially | usually | /l̠ʲ/ | leisciúil /ˈl̠ʲɛʃcuːlʲ/ "lazy" | |||
| lenited | /lʲ/ | leanbh /ˈlʲanˠəw/ "baby" (lenited) | |||||
| elsewhere | /lʲ/ or /l̠ʲ/ | siúil /ˈʃuːlʲ/ "walk" | |||||
| ll | 1 | /l̪ˠ/ | poll /poːl̪ˠ/ "hole" | ||||
| 2 | /l̠ʲ/ | coill /kəil̠ʲ/ "woods" | |||||
| m | 1 | /mˠ/ | mór /mˠoːɾˠ/ "big", am /aːmˠ/ "time" | ||||
| 2 | /mʲ/ | milis /ˈmʲɪlʲəʃ/ "sweet", im /iːmʲ/ "butter" | |||||
| mb (eclipsis of ⟨b⟩) |
1 | /mˠ/ | mbaineann /ˈmˠanʲən̪ˠ/ "takes" (eclipsed) | ||||
| 2 | /mʲ/ | mbéal /mʲeːlˠ/ "mouth" (eclipsed) | |||||
| mh | 1 | /enwiki/w/ | mhór /woːɾˠ/ "big" (lenited), lámha /ˈl̪ˠaːwə/ "hands", léamh /l̠ʲeːw/ "reading" | ||||
| 2 | /vʲ/ | mhilis /ˈvʲɪlʲəʃ/ "sweet" (lenited), uimhir /ˈɪvʲəɾʲ/ "number", nimh /n̠ʲɪvʲ/ "poison" | |||||
| See below for ⟨(e)amh, (e)omh, (i)umh⟩. | |||||||
| n | 1 | initially | usually | /n̪ˠ/ | naoi /n̪ˠiː/ "nine" | ||
| lenited | /nˠ/ | nótaí /nˠoːt̪ˠiː/ "notes" (lenited) | |||||
| after (non ⟨s(h)⟩) initial cons. | /ɾˠ/ | /nˠ/ | mná /mˠɾˠaː/ "women", cnaipe /ˈkɾˠapʲə/ "press" | ||||
| usually | /nˠ/ or /n̪ˠ/ | bean /bʲanˠ/ "woman" | |||||
| 2 | initially | usually | /n̠ʲ/ | neart /n̠ʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ "strength" | |||
| lenited | /nʲ/ | mo neart /nʲaɾˠt̪ˠ/ "strength" (lenited) | |||||
| after (non ⟨s(h)⟩) initial cons. | /ɾʲ/ | /nʲ/ | gnéas /ɟɾʲeːsˠ/ "sex", cníopaire /ˈcɾʲiːpˠəɾʲə/ "skinflint" | ||||
| usually | /nʲ/ or /n̠ʲ/ | Eoin /oːnʲ/ (male name) | |||||
| nc | 1 | /ŋk/ | ancaire /ˈaŋkəɾʲə/ "anchor" | ||||
| 2 | /ɲc/ | rinc /ɾˠɪɲc/ "dance" | |||||
| nd (eclipsis of ⟨d⟩) |
1 | /n̪ˠ/ | ndorn /n̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist" (eclipsed) | ||||
| 2 | /n̠ʲ/ | ndearg /ˈn̠ʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red" (eclipsed) | |||||
| ng | 1 | eclipsis of ⟨g⟩ | /ŋ/ | ngasúr /ˈŋasˠuːɾˠ/ "boy" (eclipsed) | |||
| elsewhere | /ŋ(g)/ | long /l̪ˠuːŋɡ/ "ship", teanga /ˈtʲaŋɡə/ "tongue" | |||||
| 2 | eclipsis of ⟨g⟩ | /ɲ/ | ngeata /ˈɲat̪ˠə/ "gate" (eclipsed) | ||||
| elsewhere | /ɲ(ɟ)/ | cuing /kɪɲɟ/ "yoke", ingear /ˈɪɲɟəɾˠ/ "vertical" | |||||
| nn | 1 | /n̪ˠ/ | ceann /caːn̪ˠ/ "head" | ||||
| 2 | /n̠ʲ/ | tinneas /ˈtʲɪn̠ʲəsˠ/ "illness" | |||||
| p | 1 | /pˠ/ | poll /pˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole", stop /sˠt̪ˠɔpˠ/ "stop" | ||||
| 2 | /pʲ/ | príosún /ˈpʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/ "prison", truip /t̪ˠɾˠɪpʲ/ "trip" | |||||
| ph | 1 | /fˠ/ | pholl /fˠoːl̪ˠ/ "hole" (lenited) | ||||
| 2 | /fʲ/ | phríosún /ˈfʲɾʲiːsˠuːnˠ/ "prison" (lenited) | |||||
| r | 1 | /ɾˠ/ | ruán /ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ/ "buckwheat", cumhra /kuːɾˠə/ "fragrant", fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ "cold" | ||||
| 2 | initially | rí /ɾˠiː/ "king" | |||||
| before ⟨d, l, n, r, s, t, th⟩ | airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ "height", duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ "stony beach", coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ/ "corner", cuairt /kuəɾˠtʲ/ "visit", oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ "east" | ||||||
| after ⟨s⟩ | sreang /sˠɾˠaŋɡ/ "string" | ||||||
| usually | /ɾʲ/ | tirim /ˈtʲɪɾʲəmʲ/ "dry", fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ "got" | |||||
| rr | /ɾˠ/ | carr /kaːɾˠ/ "car, cart" | |||||
| s | 1 | /sˠ/ | Sasana /ˈsˠasˠənˠə/ "England", tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ "beginning" | ||||
| 2 | initially before ⟨f, m, p, r⟩ | sféar /sˠfʲeːɾˠ/ "sphere", speal /sˠpʲal̪ˠ/ "scythe", sméar /sˠmʲeːɾˠ/ "blackberry", sreang /sˠɾˠaŋɡ/ "string" | |||||
| usually | /ʃ/ | sean /ʃanˠ/ "old", cáis /kaːʃ/ "cheese" | |||||
| sh | /h/ | Shasana /ˈhasˠənˠə/ "England" (lenited), shiúil /huːlʲ/ "walked" | |||||
| t | 1 | /t̪ˠ/ | taisce /ˈt̪ˠaʃcə/ "treasure", ceart /caɾˠt̪ˠ/ "correct" | ||||
| 2 | /tʲ/ | tír /tʲiːɾʲ/ "country", beirt /bʲɛɾˠtʲ/ "two (people)" | |||||
| th | usually | /h/ | thaisce /ˈhaʃcə/ "treasure" (lenited), theocht /hoːxt̪ˠ/ "heat" (lenited), athair /ˈahəɾʲ/ "father", ith /ɪh/ "eat" | ||||
| finally after a diphthong or long vowel | /∅/ | bláth /bˠlˠaː/ "blossom" | |||||
| See Exceptions in verb forms for -⟨th⟩- in verbal adjectives. | |||||||
| ts (mutation of ⟨s⟩- after an "the") |
1 | /t̪ˠ/ | an tsolais /ə(n̪ˠ) ˈt̪ˠɔlˠəʃ/ "of the light" | ||||
| 2 | /tʲ/ | an tSín /ə(nʲ) tʲiːnʲ/ "China" | |||||
| v (loan consonant) | 1 | /enwiki/w/ | vóta /ˈwoːt̪ˠə/ "vote" | ||||
| 2 | /vʲ/ | veidhlín /ˈvʲəilʲiːnʲ/ "violin" | |||||
| z (loan consonant) | 1 | /zˠ/ | zú /zˠuː/ "zoo" | ||||
| 2 | /ʒ/ | Zen /ʒɛnʲ/ "Zen" | |||||
Vowels
Vowel sequences are common in Irish spelling due to the "caol le caol agus leathan le leathan" ("slender with slender and broad with broad") rule, i.e. that the vowels on either side of any consonant (or consonant cluster) must be both slender (⟨e, é, i, í⟩) or both broad (⟨a, á, o, ó, u, ú⟩), to unambiguously determine if the consonant(s) are broad or slender. An apparent exception is ⟨ae⟩, which is followed by a broad consonant despite the ⟨e⟩.
The pronunciation of vowels in Irish is mostly predictable from the following rules:
- Unstressed short vowels are generally reduced to /ə/.
- ⟨e⟩ is silent before a broad vowel.
- ⟨i⟩ is silent before ⟨u, ú⟩ and after a vowel (except sometimes in ⟨ei, oi, ui⟩).
- ⟨io, oi, ui⟩ have multiple pronunciations that depend on adjacent consonants.
- Accented vowels (⟨á, é, í, ó, ú⟩) represent long vowels and in digraphs and trigraphs containing them, surrounding unaccented vowels are silent, but there are several exceptions, e.g. when preceded by two unaccented vowels.
- Accented vowels in succession are both pronounced, e.g. séú /ˈʃeːuː/ "sixth", ríúil /ˈɾˠiːuːlʲ/ "royal, kingly, majestic", báíocht /ˈbˠaːiːxt̪ˠ/ "sympathy", etc.
- ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are long before ⟨á, ó⟩, e.g. fiáin /ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg /ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine"
- A following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ lengthens some vowels and in Munster and Connacht a following syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ or word-final ⟨m, ng⟩ may lengthen or diphthongise some vowels depending on dialect.
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | ||||
| a | 1 | usually | /a/ | fan /fˠanˠ/ "stay" (imper.) | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | garda /ˈɡaːɾˠd̪ˠə/ "policeman", tarlú /ˈt̪ˠaːɾˠl̪ˠuː/ "happening", carnán /ˈkaːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/ "(small) heap", barr /bˠaːɾˠ/ "tip, point" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əu/ | mall /mˠaːl̪ˠ/ "slow, late", ann /aːn̪ˠ/ "there", am /aːmˠ/ "time" | ||
| 2 | usually | /ə/ | ólann /ˈoːlˠən̪ˠ/ "drink" (present), mála /ˈmˠaːlˠə/ "bag" | |||
| before ⟨ch⟩ | /a/ | /ə/ | Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx/ "Sunday" | |||
| á, ái | /aː/ | bán /bˠaːnˠ/ "white", dáil /d̪ˠaːlʲ/ "assembly", gabháil /ˈɡawaːlʲ/ "taking" | ||||
| ae, aei | /eː/ | Gaelach /ˈɡeːlˠəx/ "Gaelic", Gaeilge /ˈɡeːlʲɟə/ "Irish (language)" | ||||
| ai | 1 | usually | /a/ | baile /ˈbˠalʲə/ "home" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | airne /aːɾˠn̠ʲə/ "sloe", airde /aːɾˠdʲə/ "height" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əi/ | caillte /ˈkaːl̠ʲtʲə/ "lost, ruined", crainn /kɾˠaːn̠ʲ/ "trees" | ||
| 2 | /ə/ | eolais /ˈoːlˠəʃ/ "knowledge" (genitive) | ||||
| aí, aío | /iː/ | maígh /mˠiːj/ "claim" (imper.), gutaí /ˈɡʊt̪ˠiː/ "vowels", naíonán /ˈn̪ˠiːnˠaːnˠ/ "infant", beannaíonn /ˈbʲan̪ˠiːnˠ/ "blesses" | ||||
| ao | /iː/ | /eː/ | saol /sˠiːlˠ/ "life" | |||
| aoi | /iː/ | gaois /ɡiːʃ/ "shrewdness", naoi /ˈn̪ˠiː/ "nine" | ||||
| e, ei | 1 | usually | /ɛ/ | te /tʲɛ/ "hot", ceist /cɛʃtʲ/ "question" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /eː/ | eirleach /ˈeːɾˠl̠ʲəx/ "destruction", ceirnín /ˈceːɾˠnʲiːnʲ/ "record album", ceird /ceːɾˠdʲ/ "trade, craft" | ||||
| before ⟨m, mh, n⟩ | /ɪ/ | creimeadh /ˈcɾʲɪmʲə/ "corrosion, erosion", sceimhle /ˈʃcɪvʲlʲə/ "erroded", seinm /ˈʃɪnʲəmʲ/ "playing" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /ɪ/ | /iː/ | /əi/ | greim /ɟɾʲiːmʲ/ "grip" | ||
| 2 | /ə/ | míle /ˈmʲiːlʲə/ "thousand" | ||||
| é, éa, éi | /eː/ | sé /ʃeː/ "he", déanamh /ˈdʲeːnˠəw/ "doing", buidéal /ˈbˠɪdʲeːlˠ/ "bottle", scéimh /ʃceːvʲ/ "beauty", páipéir /ˈpˠaːpʲeːɾʲ/ "papers" | ||||
| ea, eai | 1 | usually | /a/ | bean /bʲanˠ/ "woman", veain /vʲanʲ/ "van" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩ | /aː/ | ceardaí /caːɾˠd̪ˠiː/ "craftsman", bearna /ˈbʲaːɾˠn̪ˠə/ "gap", fearr /fʲaːɾˠ/ "better" | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ | /a/ | /aː/ | /əu/ | feall /fʲaːl̪ˠ/ "treachery", feanntach /ˈfʲaːn̪ˠt̪ˠəx/ "severe" | ||
| 2 | usually | /ə/ | seisean /ˈʃɛʃənˠ/ "he" (emphatic) | |||
| before ⟨ch⟩ | /a/ | /ə/ | taoiseach /ˈt̪ˠiːʃəx/ "chieftain" | |||
| eá, eái | /aː/ | Seán /ʃaːnˠ/ "John", caisleán /ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnˠ/ "castle", meáin /mʲaːnʲ/ "middles", caisleáin /ˈkaʃl̠ʲaːnʲ/ "castles" | ||||
| eo, eoi | usually | /oː/ | ceol /coːlˠ/ "music", dreoilín /ˈdʲɾʲoːlʲiːnʲ/ "wren" | |||
| in four words | /ɔ/ | anseo /ənʲˈʃɔ/ "here", deoch /dʲɔx/ "drink", eochair /ˈɔxəɾʲ/ "key", seo /ˈʃɔ/ "this" | ||||
| i | 1 | usually | /ɪ/ | pic /pʲɪc/ "pitch", ifreann /ˈɪfʲɾʲən̪ˠ/ "hell" | ||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /ɪ/ | /iː/ | cill /ciːl̠ʲ/ "church", cinnte /ˈciːn̠ʲtʲə/ "sure", im /iːmʲ/ "butter" | |||
| 2 | /ə/ | faoistin /ˈfˠiːʃtʲənʲ/ "confession" | ||||
| í, ío | /iː/ | gnímh /ɟnʲiːvʲ/ "act, deed" (gen.), cailín /ˈkalʲiːnʲ/ "girl", síol /ʃiːlˠ/ "seed" | ||||
| ia, iai | /iə/ | Diarmaid /dʲiərmədʲ/ "Dermot", bliain /bʲlʲiənʲ/ "year" | ||||
| iá, iái | /iː.aː/ | bián /ˈbʲiːaːnˠ/ "size", liáin /ˈl̠ʲiːaːnʲ/ "trowel" (gen.) | ||||
| io | before ⟨d, n, r, s, t, th⟩ | /ɪ/ | fios /fʲɪsˠ/ "knowledge", bior /bʲɪɾˠ/ "spit, spike", cion /cɪnˠ/ "affection", giota /ˈɟɪt̪ˠə/ "bit, piece", giodam /ˈɟɪd̪ˠəmˠ/ "restlessness", friotháil /ˈfʲɾʲɪhaːlʲ/ "attention" | |||
| before ⟨b, c, g, m, ng, p⟩ | /ɪ/ | /ʊ/ | siopa /ˈʃʊpˠə/ "shop", liom /l̠ʲʊmˠ/ "with me", tiocfaidh /ˈtʲʊkiː/ "will come", Siobhán /ˈʃʊwaːnˠ/ "Joan", briogáid /ˈbʲɾʲʊɡaːdʲ/ "brigade", tiomáin /ˈtʲʊmaːnʲ/ "drive" (imper.), ionga /ˈʊŋɡə/ "(finger)nail" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ | /ʊ/ | /uː/ | fionn /fʲʊn̪ˠ/ "light-haired" | |||
| ió, iói | /iː.oː/ | sióg /ˈʃiːoːɡ/ "fairy", pióg /ˈpʲiːoːɡ/ "pie", grióir /ˈɟɾʲiːoːɾʲ/ "weakling" | ||||
| iu | /ʊ/ | fliuch /fʲlʲʊx/ "wet" | ||||
| iú, iúi | /uː/ | siúl /ʃuːlˠ/ "walk", bailiú /ˈbˠalʲuː/ "gathering", ciúin /cuːnʲ/ "quiet", inniúil /ˈɪn̠ʲuːlʲ/ "able, fit" | ||||
| o | 1 | usually | /ɔ/ | post /pˠɔsˠt̪ˠ/ "post" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /oː/ | bord /bˠoːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "table", orlach /ˈoːɾˠl̪ˠəx/ "inch" | ||||
| before ⟨n, m⟩ | /ɔ/ | /ʊ/ | conradh /ˈkʊnˠɾˠə/ "agreement", cromóg /ˈkɾˠʊmˠoːɡ/ "hooked nose" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and -⟨m, ng⟩ | /uː/ | /əu/ | fonn /fˠuːn̪ˠ/ "desire, inclination"
trom /t̪ˠɾˠuːmˠ/ "heavy", long /l̪ˠuːŋɡ/ "ship" | |||
| 2 | /ə/ | mo /mˠə/ "my", cothrom /ˈkɔɾˠəmˠ/ "equal" | ||||
| ó, ói | /oː/ | póg /pˠoːɡ/ "kiss", armónach /ˈaɾˠəmˠoːnəx/ "harmonic", móin /mˠoːnʲ/ "sod, turf", bádóir /ˈbˠaːd̪ˠoːrʲ/ "boatman" | ||||
| oi | 1 | usually | /ɛ/ | scoil /sˠkɛlʲ/ "school", troid /t̪ˠɾˠɛdʲ/ "fight" (imper.), toitín /ˈt̪ˠɛtʲiːnʲ/ "cigarette", oibre /ˈɛbʲɾʲə/ "work" (gen.), thoir /hɛɾʲ/ "in the east", cloiche/ˈklˠɛçə/ "stone" (gen.) | ||
| before ⟨cht, rs, rt, rth, s⟩ | /ɔ/ | cois /kɔʃ/ "foot" (dat.), cloisfidh /ˈkl̪ˠɔʃiː/ "will hear", boicht /bˠɔxtʲ/ "poor" (gen. sg. masc.), doirse /ˈd̪ɔɾˠʃə/ "doors", goirt /ɡɔɾˠtʲ/ "salty", oirthear /ˈɔɾˠhəɾˠ/ "east" | ||||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /oː/ | coirnéal /ˈkoːɾˠn̠ʲeːlˠ/ "corner", oird /oːɾˠdʲ/ "sledgehammers" | ||||
| next to ⟨n, m, mh⟩ | /ɪ/ | anois /əˈnˠɪʃ/ "now", gloine /ˈɡlˠɪnʲə/ "glass", cnoic /knˠɪc/ "hills", roimh /ɾˠɪvʲ/ "before", coimeád /ˈkɪmʲaːd̪ˠ/ "keep" (imper.), loinge /ˈl̪ˠɪɲɟə/ "ship" (gen.) | ||||
| before syllable-final ⟨nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /ɪ/ | /iː/ | foinn /fˠiːnʲ/ "wish" (gen.), droim /d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/ "back" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll⟩ | /əi/ | /iː/ | goill /gəil̠ʲ/ "grieve, hurt", coillte /ˈkəil̠ʲtʲə/ "forests" | |||
| 2 | /ə/ | éadroime /eːdˠɾˠəmʲə/ "lightness" | ||||
| oí, oío | /iː/ | croíleacán /ˈkɾˠiːlʲəkaːnˠ/ "core", croíonna /ˈkɾˠiːn̪ˠə/ "hearts" | ||||
| u | 1 | usually | /ʊ/ | dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /uː/ | burla /ˈbˠuːɾˠl̪ˠə/ "bundle", murnán /ˈmˠuːɾˠn̪ˠaːnˠ/ "ankle" | ||||
| in English loanwords | /ɔ/ or /ʊ/ | bus /bˠɔsˠ/, club /klˠɔbˠ/ | ||||
| 2 | /ə/ | agus /ˈaɡəsˠ/ "and" | ||||
| ú, úi | /uː/ | tús /t̪ˠuːsˠ/ "beginning", súil /suːlʲ/ "eye", cosúil /ˈkɔsˠuːlʲ/ "like, resembling" | ||||
| ua, uai | /uə/ | fuar /fˠuəɾˠ/ "cold", fuair /fˠuəɾʲ/ "got" | ||||
| uá, uái | /uː.aː/ | ruán /ˈɾˠuːaːnˠ/ "buckwheat", duán /ˈd̪ˠuːaːnˠ/ "kidney, fishhook", fuáil /ˈfˠuːaːlʲ/ "sewing, stitching" | ||||
| ui | 1 | usually | /ɪ/ | duine /ˈd̪ˠɪnʲə/ "person" | ||
| before ⟨rd, rl, rn⟩ | /ɪ/ | /uː/ | duirling /ˈd̪ˠuːɾˠlʲənʲ/ "stony beach", tuirne /ˈt̪ˠuːɾˠn̠ʲə/ "spinning wheel" | |||
| before syllable-final ⟨ll, nn⟩ and -⟨m⟩ | /iː/ | tuillteanach /ˈt̪ˠiːl̠ʲtʲənˠəx/ "deserving", puinn /pˠiːn̠ʲ/ "much", suim /sˠiːmʲ/ "interest" | ||||
| 2 | /ə/ | aguisín /ˈaɡəʃiːnʲ/ "addition" | ||||
| uí, uío | /iː/ | buígh /bˠiːj/ "turn yellow" (imper.), buíon /bˠiːnˠ/ "band, troop" | ||||
| uó, uói | /uː.oː/ | cruóg /ˈkɾˠuːoːɡ/ "urgent need", luóige /ˈl̪ˠuːoːɟə/ "pollock" (gen.) | ||||
Followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩
When followed by ⟨bh, dh, gh, mh⟩, a short vowel usually forms a diphthong or lengthens. For ⟨(e)adh, (a)idh, (a)igh⟩, see -⟨dh, (a)igh⟩ in exceptions in verb forms.
| Letters | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | |||
| (e)abh, (e)abha, (e)abhai | /oː/ or /əu/ | /əu/ | Feabhra /ˈfʲəuɾˠə/ "February", leabhair /l̠ʲəuɾʲ/ "books", sabhall /ˈsˠəul̪ˠ/ "barn" | ||
| (e)adh, (e)adha, (e)adhai, (e)agh, (e)agha, (e)aghai | 1 | /eː/ or /əi/ | /əi/ | meadhg /mʲəiɡ/ "whey", adharc /əiɾˠk/ "horn", adhairt /əiɾˠtʲ/ "pillow", saghsanna /ˈsˠəisˠən̪ˠə/ "sorts, kinds", deagha /d̪ˠəi/ "century", aghaidh /əij/ "face" | |
| 2 | /uː/ | /ə/ | margadh /ˈmˠaɾˠəɡə/ "market", briseadh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃə/ "breaking" | ||
| aidh, aidhe, aigh, aighe, aighea | 1 | /əi/ | aidhleann /əilʲən̪ˠ/ "rack", aidhe /əi/ "aye!", aighneas /əinʲəsˠ/ "argument, discussion", aighe /əi/ "cow, ox" (gen. ), caighean /kəinˠ/ "cage" | ||
| 2 | /iː/ | /ə/ | /əɟ/ | tuillidh /ˈt̪ˠɪl̠ʲiː/ "addition" (gen.), cleachtaidh /ˈclʲaxt̪ˠiː/ "practice" (gen.), coiligh /ˈkɛlʲiː/ "rooster" (gen.), bacaigh /ˈbˠakiː/ "beggar" (gen.) | |
| (e)amh, (e)amha, (e)amhai | 1 | /əu/ | ramhraigh /ˈɾˠəuɾˠiː/ "fattened", amhantar /ˈəun̪ˠt̪ˠəɾˠ/ "venture", Samhain /sˠəunʲ/ "November" | ||
| 2 | /uː/ | /ə(w)/ | /əw/ | acadamh /ˈakəd̪ˠəw/ "academy", creideamh /ˈcɾʲɛdʲəw/ "belief, religion" | |
| eidh, eidhea, eidhi | /eː/ | /əi/ | feidhm /fʲəimʲ/ "function", eidheann /əin̪ˠ/ "ivy", meidhir /mʲəiɾʲ/ "mirth" | ||
| eigh, eighea, eighi | feighlí /ˈfʲəilʲiː/ "overseer", leigheas /l̠ʲəisˠ/ "healing", feighil /fʲəilʲ/ "vigilance" | ||||
| oidh, oidhea, oidhi | /əi/ | oidhre /əiɾʲə/ "heir", oidheanna /əin̪ˠə/ "tragedies" | |||
| oigh, oighea, oighi | oighreach /əiɾʲəx/ "glacial", oigheann /əin̪ˠ/ "oven", loighic /l̪ˠəic/ "logic" | ||||
| (e)obh, (e)obha, (e)obhai | /oː/ | /əu/ | lobhra /l̪ˠəuɾˠə/ "leprosy", lobhar /l̪ˠəuɾˠ/ "leper", lobhair /l̪ˠəuɾʲ/ "lepers" | ||
| (e)odh, (e)odha, (e)odhai | bodhrán /bˠəuɾˠaːnˠ/ "dun coloured animal", bodhar /bˠəuɾˠ/ "deaf", bodhair /bˠəuɾʲ/ "deaf people" | ||||
| (e)ogh, (e)ogha, (e)oghai | doghra /ˈd̪ˠəuɾˠə/ "misery", bogha /bˠəu/ "bow", broghais /bˠɾˠəuʃ/ "afterbirth (of animal)" | ||||
| (e)omh, (e)omha, (e)omhai | /oː/ | Domhnach /ˈd̪ˠoːnˠəx/ "Sunday", comhar /koːɾˠ/ "partnership", domhain /d̪ˠoːnʲ/ "deep" | |||
| (i)ubh | /uː/ | /ʊ(w)/ | /ʊw/ | dubh /d̪ˠʊw/ "black", tiubh /tʲʊw/ "dense" | |
| (i)umh, (i)umha, (i)umhai | /uː/ | cumhra /kuːɾˠə/ "fragrant", Mumhan /ˈmˠuːnˠ/ "Munster" (gen.), ciumhais /cuːʃ/ "edge" | |||
Epenthesis
After a short vowel, an unwritten epenthetic /ə/ gets inserted between ⟨l, n, r⟩ + ⟨b, bh, ch, f, g, mh⟩ (as well as ⟨p⟩, when derived from devoiced ⟨b, bh, mh⟩), when within a morpheme boundary, e.g. gorm /ˈɡɔɾˠəmˠ/ "blue", dearg /ˈdʲaɾˠəɡ/ "red", dorcha /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəxə/ "dark", ainm /ˈanʲəmʲ/ "name", deilgneach /ˈdʲɛlʲəɟnʲəx/ "prickly, thorny"’ leanbh /ˈl̠ʲanˠəw/ "child", airgead /ˈaɾʲəɟəd̪ˠ/ "silver, money". The main exception to this is ⟨ng⟩ which is mainly used for /ŋ/ or /ɲ/.
Epenthesis does not occur after long vowels and diphthongs, e.g. téarma /tʲeːɾˠmˠə/ "term" or dualgas /ˈd̪ˠuəlˠɡəsˠ/ "duty", or across morpheme boundaries (i.e. after prefixes and in compound words), e.g. garmhac /ˈɡaɾˠwak/ "grandson" (from gar- "close, near" + mac "son"), an-chiúin /ˈan̪ˠçuːnʲ/ "very quiet" (from an- "very" + ciúin "quiet"), carrbhealach /ˈkaːɾˠvʲalˠəx/ "carriageway, roadway" (from carr "car" + bealach "way, road").
In Munster, epenthesis also occurs across morpheme boundaries, when ⟨l, n, r⟩ follow ⟨b, bh, ch, g, mh⟩ (after any vowel) or ⟨th⟩ (after short vowels), and when ⟨n⟩ follows ⟨c, g, m, r⟩.
Exceptions in verb forms
In verb forms, some letters and letter combinations are pronounced differently from elsewhere.
| Letter(s) | Phoneme(s) | Example(s) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U | C | M | ||||||
| -dh | 1 | preterite | /enwiki/w/ | /g/ | moladh é /ˈmˠɔlˠəw eː/ "he was praised" | |||
| elsewhere | before ⟨s⟩ initial pronouns | /tʲ/ | /x/ | osclaíodh sí /ˈɔsˠklˠiːtʲ ʃiː/ "let her open" | ||||
| usually | /enwiki/w/ | /x/ | bheannódh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːx mʲeː/ "I would bless" | |||||
| 2 | before subject pronouns | /∅/ | beannóidh /ˈbʲan̪ˠoː/ "will bless" | |||||
| -ea- | in forms of bí "be" | /ɛ/ | bheadh sé /ˈvʲɛtʲ ʃeː/ "he would be" | |||||
| -eo(i), ó(i)- | verb endings | /oːxə/ | /oː/ | bheannóinn /ˈvʲan̪ˠoːn̠ʲ/ "I would bless" | ||||
| -f- | personal verb endings | usually | /h/ | dhófadh /ˈɣoːhəx/ "would burn, déarfaidh /ˈdʲeːɾˠhiː/ "will say" | ||||
| after ⟨b(h), d, c(h), g, mh, p, s, t⟩ | /∅/, devoices preceding ⟨b(h), d, g, mh⟩ | brisfidh /ˈbʲɾʲɪʃiː/ "will break", scuabfadh /ˈsˠkuəpəx/ "would sweep" | ||||||
| -(a)im | /əmˠ/ | /əmʲ/ | molaim /ˈmˠɔlˠəmʲ/ "I praise" | |||||
| -(a)igh | before subject pronouns | /ə/ | bheannaigh mé /ˈvʲan̪ˠə mʲeː/ "I blessed" | |||||
| -th- b | verbal adjective endings | after ⟨b, c, f, g, p⟩ | /∅/, devoices preceding ⟨b, g⟩ | coinnithe /ˈkɪn̠ʲɪhə/ "kept", foghlamtha /ˈfˠoːlˠəmˠhə/ "learned", ruaigthe /ˈɾˠuəcə/ "chased", scuabtha /ˈsˠkuəpˠə/ "swept" | ||||
Diacritics
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil currently uses one diacritic, the acute accent, though traditionally a second was used, the overdot. If diacritics are unavailable, e.g. on a computer using ASCII, the overdot is replaced by a following ⟨h⟩, e.g. Ḃí sé → Bhí sé "He/It was" and there is no standard for replacing an acute accent, though sometimes it is indicated by a following slash, e.g. fírinne → fi/rinne "truth".[7]
The acute accent (⟨◌́⟩; agúid or (síneadh) fada "long (sign)")a is used to indicate a long vowel, as in bád /bˠaːd̪ˠ/ "boat". However, there are other conventions to indicate a long vowel, such as:
- A following ⟨rd, rl, rn, rr⟩, e.g. ard /aːɾˠd̪ˠ/ "high", eirleach /ˈeːɾˠlʲəx/ "destruction", dorn /d̪ˠoːɾˠn̪ˠ/ "fist", and, in Connacht, a word-final ⟨m⟩, e.g. am /aːmˠ/ "time".
- The digraphs ⟨ae, ao, eo⟩, e.g. aerach /ˈeːɾˠəx/ "gay", maol /mˠiːlˠ/ "bare", ceol /coːlˠ/ "music".
- The tri/tetragraphs ⟨omh(a), umh(a)⟩, e.g. comharsa /ˈkoːɾˠsˠə/ "neighbour", Mumhain /mˠuːnʲ/ "Munster".
- ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ before ⟨á⟩ or ⟨ó⟩, e.g. fiáin /ˈfʲiːaːnʲ/ "wild", ruóg /ˈɾˠuːoːɡ/ "twine".
The overdot (⟨◌̇⟩; ponc séimhithe "dot of lenition", buailte "struck", or séimhiú "lenition") was traditionally used to indicate lenition, though An Caighdeán uses a following ⟨h⟩ for this purpose. In Old Irish, it was only used for ⟨ḟ, ṡ⟩, while the following ⟨h⟩ was used for ⟨ch, ph, th⟩ and the lenition of other letters was not indicated. Later the two methods were used in parallel to represent the lenition of any consonant and competed with each other until the standard practice became to use the overdot in Gaelic type and the following ⟨h⟩ in Roman type. Thus ⟨ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ⟩ are equivalent to ⟨bh, ch, dh, fh, gh, mh, ph, sh, th⟩.
Lowercase ⟨i⟩ has no tittle in Gaelic type, and road signs in the Republic of Ireland. However, as printed and electronic material like books, newspapers and web pages use Roman type almost invariably, the tittle is generally shown. Irish does not graphemically distinguish dotted i and dotless ı, i.e. they are not different letters as they are in, e.g. Turkish and Azeri.
Punctuation
Irish punctuation is similar to English. An apparent exception is the Tironian et (⟨⁊⟩; agus) which abbreviates the word agus "and", like the ampersand (⟨&⟩) abbreviates "and" in English. It is generally substituted by a seven (⟨7⟩) in texts.
A hyphen (fleiscín) is used in Irish after ⟨t, n⟩ when prefixed to a masculine vowel-initial word as an initial mutation, e.g. an t-arán "the bread", a n-iníon "their daughter". However, it is omitted when the vowel is capitalised, e.g. an tAlbanach "the Scotsman", Ár nAthair "Our Father". No hyphen is used when ⟨h⟩ is prefixed to a vowel-initial word, e.g. a hiníon "her daughter".
A hyphen is also used in compound words under certain circumstances:
- between two vowels, e.g. mí-ádh "misfortune"
- between two similar consonants, e.g. droch-chaint "bad language", grod-díol "prompt payment"
- in a three-part compound, e.g. buan-chomhchoiste "permanent joint committee"
- after the prefixes do-, fo-, so- before a word beginning with ⟨bha, bhla, bhra, dha, gha, ghla, ghra, mha⟩, e.g. do-bhlasta "bad tasting", fo-ghlac "subsume", so-mharfacht "mortality"
- in capitalised titles, e.g. An Príomh-Bhreitheamh "the Chief Justice"
- after an- "very" and dea- "good", e.g. an-mhór "very big", dea-mhéin "goodwill"
An apostrophe (uaschamóg) is used to indicate an omitted vowel in the following cases:
- the prepositions de "from" and do "to" both become d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in Thit sí d'each "She fell from a horse" and Tabhair d'fhear an tí é "Give it to the landlord"
- the possessive pronouns mo "my" and do "your (singular)" become m' and d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in m'óige "my youth", d'fhiacail "your tooth"
- the preverbal particle do becomes d' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in d'ardaigh mé "I raised", d'fhanfadh sé "he would wait"
- the copular particle ba becomes b' before a vowel or ⟨fh⟩ + vowel, as in B'ait liom é sin "I found that odd" and b'fhéidir "maybe". However, ba is used before the pronouns é, í, iad, as in Ba iad na ginearáil a choinnigh an chumhacht "It was the generals who kept the power"
Capitalisation
Capitalisation rules are similar to English. However, a prefixed letter remains in lowercase when the base initial is capitalised (an tSín "China"). For text written in all caps, the prefixed letter is kept in lowercase, or small caps (STAIR NA HÉIREANN "THE HISTORY OF IRELAND").[8] An initial capital is used for:[9]
- Start of sentences
- Names of people, places (except the words an, na, de),[10] languages, and adjectives of people and places (Micheál Ó Murchú "Michael Murphy"; Máire Mhac an tSaoi "Mary McEntee"; de Búrca "Burke"; Sliabh na mBan "Slievenamon"; Fraincis "French"; bia Iodálach "Italian food")
- Names of months, weeks and feast-days (Meán Fómhair "September"; an Luan "Monday"; Oíche Nollag "Christmas Eve")
- Dé "day" (Dé Luain "on Monday")
- Definite titles[11]
Abbreviations
Most Irish abbreviations are straightforward, e.g. leathanach → lch. ("page → p.") and mar shampla → m.sh. ("exempli gratia (for example) → e.g."), but two that require explanation are: eadhon → .i. ("that is → i.e.") and agus araile → ⁊rl./srl. ("et cetera (and so forth) → &c./etc."). Like ⟨th⟩ in English, ⟨ú⟩ follows an ordinal numeral, e.g. Is é Lá Fheile Phádraig an 17ú lá den Márta "St. Patrick’s day is the 17th [day] of March".
Spelling reform
The literary Classical Irish which survived till the 17th century was archaic; the first attempt at simplification was not until 1639.[12] The spelling represented a dialect continuum including distinctions lost in all surviving dialects by the Gaelic revival of the late 19th century.
The idea of a spelling reform, linked to the use of Roman or Gaelic type, was controversial in the early decades of the 20th century.[13] The Irish Texts Society's 1904 Irish-English dictionary by Patrick S. Dinneen used traditional spellings.[13] After the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922, all Acts of the Oireachtas were translated into Irish, initially using Dinneen's spellings, with a list of simplifications accumulating over the years.[13] When Éamon de Valera became President of the Executive Council after the 1932 election, policy reverted to older spellings, which were used in the enrolled text of the 1937 Constitution.[13] In 1941, de Valera decided to publish a "popular edition" of the Constitution with simplified spelling and established a committee of experts, which failed to agree on recommendations.[13][14] Instead, the Oireachtas' own translation service prepared a booklet, Litriú na Gaeilge: Lámhleabhar an Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil, published in 1945.[14]
Some pre-reform spellings criticised by T. F. O'Rahilly and their modern forms include:[13] beirbhiughadh → beiriú, imthighthe → imithe, faghbháil → fáil, urradhas → urrús, filidheacht → filíocht.
The booklet was expanded in 1947,[15] and republished as An Caighdeán Oifigiúil "The Official Standard" in 1958, combined with the standard grammar of 1953.[16] It attracted initial criticism as unhistorical and artificial; some spellings fail to represent the pronunciation of some dialects, while others preserve letters unpronounced in any dialect.[16] Its status was reinforced by use in the civil service and as a guide for Tomás de Bhaldraithe's 1959 English–Irish dictionary and Niall Ó Dónaill's 1977 Irish–English dictionary.[16] A review of the written standard, including spelling, was announced in 2010, aiming to improve "simplicity, internal consistency, and logic".[17] The result was the 2017 update of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil.[18]
See also
Notes
- ^a Vowels with an acute accent are read as [á/é/í/ó/ú] fada "long [á/é/í/ó/ú]".
- ^b -⟨th⟩- is ⟨t⟩ after ⟨d, gh, l, n, s, t, th⟩ (⟨gh, th⟩ are deleted before it is added). It is ⟨f⟩ after ⟨bh, mh⟩ which are deleted before it is added.
References
- ^ Oireachtas, Houses of the (2 February 2018). "Publications by the Houses of the Oireachtas – Houses of the Oireachtas". www.oireachtas.ie. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ "Celtic languages - Irish | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
- ^ Ó Dónaill, Niall (2007). Tomás De Bhaldraithe (ed.). Foclóir Gaeilge-Béarla. An Gúm. ISBN 978-1-85791-038-4. OCLC 670042711.
- ^ Learn Irish Rosetta Stone. Retrieved: 2020-06-21.
- ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí. An Gúm. 22 September 1999. ISBN 9781857913279.
- ^ "Irish Orthography". www.nualeargais.ie. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
- ^ Scott, Brian M. (8 April 1996). "[Reply to] Gaelic Translation Needed". Usenet newsgroup rec.org.sca – via groups.google.com.
... the corresponding Irish Gaelic word is 'ge/ar' (slash indicating an acute accent on the previous vowel).... ... the later spelling of the patronymic, which I've also recast in its feminine form, is 'ni/ Chlu/mha/in'.
[Further examples in the next comment by Heather Rose Jones, a significant voice in SCA heraldry.] - ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §3.2
- ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §3.1
- ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §§ 3.1, 7.6, 10.2-10.3
- ^ Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí, §§ 3.1, 3.4
- ^ Crowley, Tony (2005). "Encoding Ireland: Dictionaries and Politics in Irish History". Éire-Ireland. 40 (3): 119–139. doi:10.1353/eir.2005.0017. ISSN 1550-5162. S2CID 154134330.
- ^ a b c d e f Ó Cearúil, Micheál; Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1999). "Script and Spelling". Bunreacht na hÉireann: a study of the Irish text (PDF). Dublin: Stationery Office. pp. 27–41. ISBN 0-7076-6400-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011.
- ^ a b Dáil debates Vol.99 No.17 p.3 7 March 1946
- ^ Litriú na Gaeilge – Lámhleabhar An Chaighdeáin Oifigiúil (in Irish). Dublin: Stationery Office / Oifig an tSoláthair. 1947. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ^ a b c Ó Laoire, Muiris (1997). "The Standardization of Irish Spelling: an Overview". Journal of the Spelling Society. 22 (2): 19–23. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011.
- ^ Central Translation Unit. "The Scope of the Process". Review of Caighdeán Oifigiúil na Gaeilge. Department of Community, Equality and Gaeltacht Affairs. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
- ^ "Rannóg an Aistriúcháin > An Caighdeán Oifigiúil".
In September 2014, members of the public and other interested parties were asked to make submissions regarding An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. An Advisory Committee was also established, which worked tirelessly for a year and a half to identify issues and to make recommendations. The result of this work is the new edition of An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, published by the Houses of the Oireachtas Service in 2017.
Bibliography
- Gramadach na Gaeilge agus Litriú na Gaeilge: An Caighdeán Oifigiúil. Dublin: Oifig an tSoláthair. 1994.
- Mac Eoin, Gearóid (1993). "Irish". In Martin J. Ball; James Fife (eds.). The Celtic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 101–44. ISBN 0-415-01035-7.
- Ó Baoill, Dónall P. (1986). Lárchanúint don Ghaeilge (in Irish). Dublin: The Linguistics Institute of Ireland. ISBN 0-946452-06-7.
- Ó Murchú, Máirtín (1977). "Successes and Failures in the Modernization of Irish Spelling". In Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.). Advances in the Creation and Revision of Writing Systems. De Gruyter. pp. 267–289. ISBN 9783110807097.
- Ó Siadhail, Mícheál (1988). Learning Irish (2nd ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04224-8.
- Stenson, Nancy; Hickey, Tina (2018). Understanding Irish Spelling A Handbook for Teachers and Learners (PDF). An Chomhairle um Oideachas Gaeltachta & Gaelscolaíochta.
- Graiméar Gaeilge na mBráithre Críostaí (in Irish). Dublin: An Gúm. 1999. ISBN 1-85791-327-2.
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