National Reconciliation (Sudan)

maybe add it to Democratic Republic of Sudan

Sadiq al-Mahdi sworn into the government after the 1977 National Reconciliation

Following the 1976 coup attempt, Jaafar Nimeiri and his opponents adopted more conciliatory policies. In early 1977, government officials met with the National Front in London, and arranged for a conference between Nimeiri and Sadiq al Mahdi in Port Sudan. In what became known as the "national reconciliation," the two leaders signed an eight-point agreement that readmitted the opposition to national life in return for the dissolution of the National Front. The agreement also restored civil liberties, freed political prisoners, reaffirmed Sudan's nonaligned foreign policy, and promised to reform local government.

As a result of the reconciliation, the government released about 1,000 detainees and granted an amnesty to Sadiq al Mahdi, who was sentenced to death in absentia. The Sudanese Socialist Union (SSU) also admitted former supporters of the National Front to its ranks. Sadiq renounced multiparty politics and urged his followers to work within the regime's one-party system. Hassan al-Turabi, the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood party an dean of law at the University of Khartoum who had been imprisoned and then exiled after the May Revolution, was also released and became Justice Minister and Attorney General in 1979. Sharif Hussein al-Hindi, a previous Finance Minister who led the National Unionist Party, stood against the President's peace proposal. However, he ultimately endorsed a reconciliation accord in London. While the leaders have made their way back, the 5,000 insurgence located in Libya and Ethiopia remain absent. The Government intends to dispatch delegates to visit the camps with the aim of convincing them to return. Additionally, efforts have been initiated to improve the previously tense relations with Addis Ababa and Tripoli.

The first test of national reconciliation occurred during the February 1978 People's Assembly elections. Nimeiri authorised returning exiles who had been associated with the old Umma Party, the National Unionist Party, and the Muslim Brotherhood to stand for election as independent candidates. These independents won 140 of 304 seats, leading many observers to applaud Nimeiri's efforts to democratise Sudan's political system. However, the People's Assembly elections marked the beginning of further political decline. The SSU's failure to sponsor official candidates weakened party discipline and prompted many assembly deputies who also were SSU members to claim that the party had betrayed them. As a result, an increasing number of assembly deputies used their offices to advance personal rather than national interests.

The end of the SSU's political monopoly, coupled with rampant corruption at all levels of government, cast increasing doubt on Nimeiri's ability to govern Sudan. To preserve his regime, Nimeiri adopted a more dictatorial leadership style. He ordered the State Security Organisation to imprison without trial thousands of opponents and dissidents. Nimeiri also dismissed or transferred any minister or senior military officer who appeared to be developing their own power base. Nimeiri selected replacements based on their loyalty to him rather than on their abilities. This strategy caused the president to lose touch with popular feeling and the country's deteriorated political situation.

Southern Sudan

On 5 June 1983, Nimeiri sought to counter the south's growing political power by re-dividing the Southern Region into the three old provinces of Bahr al Ghazal, Al Istiwai, and Aali an Nil; he had suspended the Southern Regional Assembly almost two years earlier. The southern-based Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and its military wing, the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA), which emerged in mid-1983, unsuccessfully opposed this re-division and called for the creation of a new united Sudan.

Within a few months, in September 1983 Nimeiri proclaimed the sharia as the basis of the Sudanese legal system. Nimeiri's decrees, which became known as the September Laws, were bitterly resented both by secularized Muslims and by the predominantly non-Muslim southerners. The SPLM denounced the sharia and the executions and amputations ordered by religious courts. Meanwhile, the security situation in the south had deteriorated so much that by the end of 1983 it amounted to a resumption of the civil war.

Sharia laws

Relations between Khartoum and the South Sudan leadership worsened after the National Reconciliation due to the shift to Sharia law, and adopting Arabic as the country official language.

In September 1983, President Jaafar al-Nimeiri introduced sharia law in Sudan, symbolically disposing of alcohol and implementing hudud punishments like public amputations. The Islamic economy followed in early 1984, eliminating interest and instituting zakat. Nimeiri declared himself the imam of the Sudanese umma in 1984. In 1985, Mahmud Muhammad Taha was executed for apostasy, and Nimeiri was deposed in April. The transition marked by Nimeiri's regime ending was comparable to the 1964 fall of General Ibrahim Abbud's government. However, the army retained control for a year after the 1985 uprising. Nimeiri's rule took Sudan back to its sectarian beginnings. His tenure saw phases of reform and reconciliation, involving meetings with Muslim Brotherhood leaders and discussions with King Faysal of Saudi Arabia. The constitutional changes in 1973 indicated a shift towards an Islamic state, culminating in the implementation of sharia.

Nimeiri's attempt at implementing an "Islamic path" in Sudan from 1977 to 1985, as outlined in three books and various actions, including aligning with religious factions, ultimately failed. His transition from nationalist leftist ideologies to strict Islam was detailed in his books "Al-Nahj al-Islami limadha?" and "Al-Nahj al-Islami kayfa?" The connection between Islamic revival and reconciling with opponents of the 1969 revolution coincided with the rise of militant Islam in other parts of the world. Nimeiri's association with the Abu Qurun Sufi order influenced his shift towards Islam, leading him to appoint followers of the order into significant roles. The process of legislating the "Islamic path" began in 1983, culminating in the enactment of various orders and acts to implement sharia law and other Islamic principles.

Nimeiri's establishment of the Islamic state in Sudan was outlined in his speech at a 1984 Islamic conference. He justified the implementation of the sharia due to a rising crime rate. He claimed a reduction of crime by over 40% within a year due to the new punishments. Nimeiri attributed Sudan's economic success to the zakat and taxation act, outlining its benefits for the poor and non-Muslims. His association with the Abu Qurun Sufi order and his self-proclaimed position as imam led to his belief that he alone could interpret laws in line with the sharia. However, his economic policies, including Islamic banking, led to severe economic issues. Nimeiri's collaboration with the Muslim Brotherhood and the Ansar aimed to end sectarian divisions and implement the sharia. The Ansar, despite initial collaboration, criticized Nimeiri's implementation as un-Islamic and corrupt.

Nimeiri's Islamic phase resulted in renewed conflict in Southern Sudan in 1983, marking the end of the Addis Ababa Agreement of 1972, which had granted regional autonomy and recognized the diverse nature of Sudanese society. The agreement ensured equality regardless of race or religion and allowed for separate personal laws for non-Muslims. However, hostilities escalated due to oil discovery, dissolution of the Southern Regional Assembly, and decentralization efforts. Despite this, the Islamic laws implemented by Nimeiri exacerbated the situation. The political landscape shifted with Nimeiri's removal in 1985, leading to the emergence of numerous political parties. The National Islamic Front (NIF), Ansar, and Khatmiyya Sufi order (DUP) played crucial roles in Sudan's politics. Hasan al-Turabi and the NIF consistently supported the Islamic laws and resisted changes. Muhammad Uthman al-Mirghani of the Khatmiyya Sufi order initiated negotiations with the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) for a cease-fire and compromise. Meanwhile, Sadiq al-Mahdi, leader of the Ansar and prime minister during Sudan's third democratic episode, initially opposed the Islamic laws he later supported. He proposed a vision of a fully Arabized and Islamized southern Sudan, aiming for unity but differing from his earlier, more liberal views. The failure to address Sudan's issues led to the military coup by Umar al-Bashir in 1989, further entrenching Islamic principles.

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The events of 1983 marked a pivotal moment in Sudanese history, showcasing the interconnectedness of Islamization and concerns over Islamic dominance in the country. This relationship led to significant political implications, exemplified by key incidents. The year saw the eruption of a second civil war in May 1983, following southern troops' mutiny, and Numayri's declaration of the sharia as state law in September 1983. These events were driven by various factors, including southerners' disappointment over unfulfilled agreements, particularly in terms of economic development and oil discoveries in the south. Numayri's growing reliance on the Islamic right-wing political agenda exacerbated tensions and ultimately culminated in the transformational events of 1983. Numayri's Islamization efforts were not sudden; they had roots dating back to the post-1976 coup attempt, which marked his personal reconnection with Islam. By 1977, a committee was working to align Sudanese law with the sharia, and the Muslim Brotherhood was gaining influence in university student political groups. While legislative attempts to Islamize the law through the People's Assembly were met with resistance, the mutiny of southern forces in 1983 changed the political landscape. This led to the founding of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) in 1984, both seeking the removal of the sharia.

Opposition to Numayri's Islamization came from various quarters. Southerners, northern secular and religious voices, and even the judiciary voiced concerns about the undemocratic implementation and lack of consultation. Sadiq al-Mahdi, leader of the Umma Party, initially jailed for his opposition, later became prime minister, but his efforts to reform the sharia were limited by pressure from the National Islamic Front (NIF), led by his brother-in-law Hasan al-Turabi. The NIF's formation in 1985 aimed to assert Islam as the general source of law due to the Muslim majority, and it advocated a federal power-sharing system. The events culminated in a transition government, freezing the September Laws, and eventually in the elected coalition government led by Sadiq al-Mahdi. However, dissatisfaction with his handling of the issue, his failure to engage with SPLM/SPLA, and moves to abrogate the September Laws led to his government's resignation in 1989. The subsequent coup, supported by the NIF, marked a turning point, further entrenching the Islamic agenda. This complex relationship between Islamization, power dynamics, and political manoeuvring underscored Sudan's trajectory and deep divisions between north and south, Arab and non-Arab communities, and Islamic and secular ideologies. The events of 1983 and their aftermath intensified fear and mistrust among various groups, shaping the course of Sudanese history.

1985 protest and coup d'état

In early 1985, anti-government discontent resulted in a general strike in Khartoum. Demonstrators opposed rising food, gasoline, and transport costs. The general strike paralysed the country. Nimeiri, who was on a visit to the United States, was unable to suppress the rapidly growing demonstrations against his regime which lead to the 1985 coup d’état.

Political and economic discontent against Nimeiry grew over several years prior to 1985, according to Sudanese interviewed by The New York Times, who said that Nimeiry had "begun to alienate almost every sector of Sudanese society". Major complaints included the obligatory use of Islamic law throughout Sudan, which upset non-Muslims, especially in the southern part of Sudan, and price increases resulting from an economic austerity program implemented under pressure from the United States (US) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Price increases in late March 1985 were considered to be a major trigger factor for protests. Eight doctors', lawyers' and university lecturers' associations called for a protest on 3 April and a "general political strike until the abolition of the current regime". Massive demonstrations took place in Khartoum and around Sudan on 3 April. The general strike took place up to 6 April, when Nimeiry was deposed, with a high effectiveness in shutting down governance of Sudan. The use of massive civil disobedience that led to the coup d'état deposing Nimeiry from the presidency on 6 April is often referred to as the 1985 Revolution that followed the Sudanese October 1964 Revolution.

On 6 April 1985, while Nimeiry was on an official visit to the United States of America in the hope of gaining more financial aid from Washington, a bloodless military coup led by his defence minister Gen. Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab ousted him from power. At the subsequent elections the pro-Islamist leader, Sadiq al-Mahdi (who had attempted a coup against Nimeiry in 1976) became Prime Minister.