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Llullaillaco

Coordinates: 24°43′00″S 68°32′00″W / 24.71667°S 68.53333°W / -24.71667; -68.53333
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For the national park, see Llullaillaco National Park. For the three mummified child sacrifices, see Children of Llullaillaco.

Llullaillaco
Llullaillaco from the east
Highest point
Elevation6,739 m (22,110 ft) Edit this on Wikidata
Prominence2,344 m (7,690 ft) Edit this on Wikidata
ListingUltra
Coordinates24°43′00″S 68°32′00″W / 24.71667°S 68.53333°W / -24.71667; -68.53333[1]
Geography
Llullaillaco is located in Chile
Llullaillaco
Llullaillaco
Location in Chile (on border with Argentina)
LocationChile and Argentina
Parent rangeAndes, Puna de Atacama
Geology
Rock agePleistocene
Mountain typeStratovolcano
Last eruptionMay 1877[2]
Climbing
First ascent1950, but previous climbs by Inca[3]

Llullaillaco (Spanish pronunciation: [ʎuʎajˈʎako]) is a dormant stratovolcano at the border of Argentina (Salta Province) and Chile (Antofagasta Region). It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of tall volcanic peaks on a high plateau close to the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places in the world. It is the second highest active volcano in the world after Ojos del Salado.

Llullaillaco formed during two different phases in the Pleistocene-Holocene out of dacitic lava flows. The oldest rocks are about 1.5 million years old. About 150,000 years ago, the volcano's southeastern flank collapsed, generating a debris avalanche that reached as far as 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the summit. The youngest dated rocks were erupted 5,600 ± 250 years ago in the summit region, but there are reports of activity from the 19th century.

The mountain's first recorded climb was in 1950, but traces of earlier climbs and a number of archaeological sites were found on the mountain and at its feet; Llullaillaco marks the highest archaeological site in the world. In 1999, the mummified remains of three children, known as the Children of Llullaillaco, were found at its summit. They are presumed to have been human sacrifices. Mice have been observed in the summit region; aside from humans, they are the highest finding of a mammal in the world.

Name and human history

The name Llullaillaco is derived from the Quechua word llulla meaning "false", "lie" or "deceitful" and yaku or llaco meaning "water".[4] This name probably refers to the meltwater from snow, which flows down the slopes but then is absorbed into the soil;[5] normally mountains are sources for water.[4] It is possible that it instead refers to the precipitation regime, which starting from Llullaillaco becomes dominated by winter precipitation.[6] Other translations are (Aymara) "hot water"[7] after lloclla "warm" and yacu "water",[8] and (Quechua) "thinking", "memory"+"water".[9]

The region was inhabited by hunters and shepherds in pre-Hispanic times.[8] Llullaillaco and other Andean peaks were ascended long before Westerners began climbing mountains; the volcano is the earliest reliably recorded ascent on a mountain[10] and demonstrates that high altitudes were no obstacle to indigenous people in the Americas,[11] who also built on mountains with primitive technology.[12]

Geography and geomorphology

Llullaillaco is located in the northwestern Argentine Andes,[13] towards the southern end of the Puna.[14] It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of very high volcanic peaks on a high plateau[15] close to the Atacama Desert,[16] one of the driest places in the world.[17] The frontier between Argentina and Chile passes over the mountain.[18] The Argentine portion is in the Los Andes Department of Salta Province[19] and the Chilean in Chile's Antofagasta Region.[20][21]

Several roads from Chile Route 5, Socompa Pass, Taltal and Toconao lead to Salar de Punta Negra[22] From there, a road leads to Llullaillaco. It splits at Aguada de las Zorritas in three: One road ends close to a mountain pass north of Llullaillaco, a second ends at Azufrera Esperanto and the third rounds the volcano from southwest, crossing into Argentina south of Llullaillaco.[23] There are numerous mines in the region, including sulfur mines at Azufrera Esperanto and south of Llullaillaco.[24] About 30 kilometres (19 mi) northeast of Llullaillaco, a railway crosses the Andes at Socompa.[25] Two abandoned sulfur mines can be found north and south of Llullaillaco.[26] The northern mine is known as Azufrera Esperanto and associated with an area of hydrothermal alteration. A path or road leads up to that mine from northwest.[23] The region is dry and located at high altitudes, making work in the area difficult.[27] There are reports of landmines in the area.[28]

Geomorphology

Llullaillaco seen from Cerro Paranal, 189 km away.

The volcano is an imposing mountain, rising by 3,800 metres (12,500 ft) and 3,750 metres (12,300 ft) above the Salar de Punta Negra 36 kilometres (22 mi) and Sala de Llullaillaco 20 kilometres (12 mi) away, respectively.[29][27] With a summit height of 6,723 metres (22,057 ft),[30][1][31] or alternatively 6,739 metres (22,110 ft)[2] or 6,752 metres (22,152 ft),[32] it is one of the highest mountains in the Andes[19] and the second-[1] or third-highest volcano in the world,[18] after Ojos del Salado.[30] The height of the mountain and the clear air in the region make Llullaillaco visible from Cerro Paranal, 189 kilometres (117 mi) away as measured through Google Maps.[33] The Nevados de Cachi mountains and Ojos del Salado 250 kilometres (160 mi) farther south are visible from Lllullaillaco.[34]

Llullaillaco is a composite volcano formed mostly by lava flows. It rises about 2.2 kilometres (1.4 mi)[30]-2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) above the surrounding terrain[18] and hundreds of metres above surrounding mountains.[19] The summit of Llullaillaco is formed by a small cone with about four associated lava domes,[35] which reach lengths of 1–3 kilometres (0.62–1.86 mi) and have abrupt walls.[36] The slopes of the volcano are fairly steep, with an altitude drop of 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) over only 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) horizontal distance.[27][29] The slopes high up are steeper than those at lower altitudes.[37] A plateau at 5,600–6,100 metres (18,400–20,000 ft) elevation is the remnant of an eroded crater[38] which formed early in the development of the Llullaillaco volcano.[39]

Llullaillaco seen from space, with lava flows clearly visible.

Three young-looking, 4.5–8 kilometres (2.8–5.0 mi) long lava flows emanate from the summit cone[35] to the north and south.[24] Morphologically, these flows are reddish-black aa lava flows and feature black and reddish glassy blocks with sizes of 5 metres (16 ft).[35][40][35] The fronts of the stubby, lobe-shaped flows[40] are up to 15 metres (49 ft) thick. Morphologically, these flows are reddish-black aa lava flows and feature blocks with sizes of 5 metres (16 ft).[35] The northern flow reaches an obstacle[41] where splits into a northwestern and northeastern branch, while the short southern flow runs past the longer southwestern flow[24] and descends an elevation of 2 kilometres (1.2 mi).[40] The southern lava flow is 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) long and was fairly viscous when it was erupted.[40] It almost reaches a road southwest of the volcano.[42] These flows feature levees and ridges.[2] The existence of a cave at 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) elevation was reported in 1995.[43] On the northern flank is Azufrera Esperanto, an 5,561 metres (18,245 ft) high eroded volcano with sulfur deposits and traces of hydrothermal alteration.[35] The edifice covers an elliptical area of 23 by 17 kilometres (14 mi × 11 mi).[30][44] The volume of the volcano is about 50 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi)[30][44]-37 cubic kilometres (8.9 cu mi).[45] The ground at Llullaillaco is formed mostly by lavic rocks and block debris, which are frequently buried by tephra.[46] The rocks are grey, except where weathering has coloured them black, brown, red or yellow,[36] and their appearance is vitrophyric or porphyritic.[40]

Several dry valleys originate on Llullaillaco, including Quebrada de las Zorritas on the north-northeastern slope, Quebrada El Salado and Quebrada Llullaillaco on the northwestern slope, and Quebrada La Barda on the southwestern slope.[47] Water is only episodically present on the mountain[48] during snowmelt.[49] Only Quebrada de las Zorritas carries permanent water;[50] most of the dry valleys drain into Salar de Punta Negra.[51] The volcano is relatively unaffected by water erosion,[37] and the valley network is poorly developed.[37] There is a permanent spring in Quebrada de las Zorritas;[52] Darapsky in 1900 reported the existence of warm springs at Ojo del Llullaillaco and Ojo de Zorritas.[53] On the northwestern flank there is a 0.9 hectares (2.2 acres) lake called the "Lago Llullaillaco" on the mountain; with an elevation of 6,170 metres (20,240 ft)[54] it is one of the highest lakes in the world.[55][56]

  • Llullaillaco during sunset
    Llullaillaco during sunset
  • Llullailaco with a road leading to the mountain.
    Llullailaco with a road leading to the mountain.
  • Llullaillaco from the base camp.
    Llullaillaco from the base camp.
  • Lava flow from Llullaillaco
    Lava flow from Llullaillaco
  • Llullaillaco in Salta
    Llullaillaco in Salta

Debris avalanche

A major landslide occurred in the volcano's history during the late Pleistocene, probably triggered by volcanic activity.[57] This landslide descended the eastern-southeastern flanks of the volcano into Argentina,[40][2] first over a steep slope of 20° on the volcano,[58] split around Cerro Rosado and entered the Salina de Llullaillaco 25 kilometres (16 mi) east of the summit,[40] extending up to 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) into the salar.[59] The toe of the avalanche reaches a thickness of 10 metres (33 ft) above the salar in the avalanche's southern lobe. Part of the avalanche was channelled in a valley between Cerro Rosado and an unnamed volcano farther south.[60] When it reached Cerro Rosado, the avalanche climbed about 400 metres (1,300 ft) and mostly continued to flow southeast into the main avalanche path, with only a small flow continuing northeastwards. Part of the run-up avalanche later collapsed backwards over the main avalanche deposit.[61] Unlike Socompa farther north, a landslide scar is only poorly developed at Llullaillaco despite the large size of the collapse;[62] it was largely filled in later by lava flows and volcaniclastic debris.[63]

This landslide has been subdivided into four facies and features landforms like levees up to 50 metres (160 ft) high,[64] longitudinal ridges and a run-up mark on Cerro Rosado.[59] Such ridges may be associated with uneven underlying terrain.[65] The surface of the slide is covered by lava bombs less than 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) long, blocks exceeding 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) width, cobbles, and gravel-like rocks.[66] Close to the collapse scarp on Llullaillaco the largest blocks with sizes of up to 20 metres (66 ft) are found.[61] Overall, the margins of the landslide are very crisp and the surface covered by hummocks.[67]

The landslide deposit covers a surface of about 165 square kilometres (64 sq mi).[40] Its volume has been estimated at 1–2 cubic kilometres (0.24–0.48 cu mi) and the speed at 45–90 metres per second (150–300 ft/s). This speed range is comparable to that of the Colima, Lastarria, and Mount St. Helens debris avalanches.[68] The landslide occurred no later than 156,000 – 148,000 ± 5,000 years ago,[40] it might coincide with the 48,000 year old lava flow.[58] Some volcanic rocks were still hot at the time of the collapse, indicating that volcanic activity occurred immediately before the collapse.[62] A smaller undated avalanche occurred on the northeastern flank.[40]

Such landslides are common at volcanoes, where they are favoured by the steep edifices that form from lava flows being stacked on top of each other. It is not usually known what triggers the collapse, although eruption-associated earthquakes are suspected to play a role. Other volcanoes in the region with sector collapses are: Lastarria, Ollague, San Pedro, Socompa, and Tata Sabaya.[69] The Mellado and Cerro Rosado volcanoes close to Llullaillaco also display evidence of sector collapses.[63]

Geology

Regional setting

Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Nazca Plate subducts at a speed of 7–9 centimetres per year (2.8–3.5 in/year) and the Antarctic Plate at a speed of 2 centimetres per year (0.79 in/year). Volcanism is not continuous along the Andes, rather it occurs in four distinct volcanic zones: Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) and Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ). The formation of magma results from the release of water and other volatile material from the subducting plate, which is then injected into the above-lying mantle wedge. The volcanic zones are separated by gaps, where subduction occurs at a flatter angle due to the presence of ridges on the downgoing plate: The Nazca Ridge in the gap between the NVZ and CVZ, the Juan Fernandez Ridge in the one between the CVZ and SVZ, and the gap between the SVZ and AVZ is associated with the Chile Triple Junction.[70][71]

About 178 volcanoes are found in the Andes, 60 of which have been active in historical times. In addition, large calderas and monogenetic volcanoes exist in the Andes.[70]

Llullaillaco is one[72] of more than 1,000 volcanoes in the CVZ.[71] At least 44 volcanic centres with historical activity and 18 large caldera-forming volcanoes have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone;[70] the most active is Lascar,[31] and Guallatiri and San Pedro have had historical eruptions as well.[73] Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone mostly occurs on the Altiplano and the Cordillera Occidental. A number of volcanoes there reach heights of over 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level.[74] One of the largest vertical drops on Eart, almost 15 kilometres (9.3 mi), exists between the summit of Llullaillaco and the Peru-Chile Trench 300 kilometres (190 mi) farther west.[75] The Wadati-Benioff zone lies at 180 kilometres (110 mi) depth.[76]

Local setting

The region is dominated by large volcanic cones (often more than 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) high) in the Altiplano and Western Cordillera,[74] and extensive salt flats in low-altitude areas.[77] Southeast of the mountain is Salar de Llullaillaco in Argentina, and Salar de Punta Negra northwest of Llullaillaco in Chile.[25] Neighbouring mountains are 4,923 metres (16,152 ft) high Cerro Mitral southwest and 5,473 metres (17,956 ft) high Volcan Chuculay north of Llullaillaco.[23] 17 kilometres (11 mi) farther east[2] of Llullaillaco lies the Miocene Cerro Rosado volcano (5,383 metres (17,661 ft)). It erupted dacitic lava flows on its northeastern and southern flanks during the Pliocene-Quaternary.[26] 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Llullaillaco,[27] and behind Cerro Rosado is the Salar de Llullaillaco (3,750 metres (12,300 ft) [78]), a salt pan with warm springs at its western and southwestern shores. There are three abandoned borate mines Mina Amalia and the salt mines Mina Luisa and Mina Maria[26] and the recent lithium prospect "Proyecto Mariana" at Salar de Llullaillaco.[79] Mitral mountain (5,015 metres (16,453 ft)) lies southwest of Llullaillaco and is of Miocene age. It features an eroded crater that opens to the northwest.[42][23] Iris mountain (5,461 metres (17,917 ft)) north of Llullaillaco is constructed of Pliocene rocks.[42] Other volcanoes in the neighbourhood are Dos Naciones, Cerro Silla, and Cerro 5074.[80] Llullaillaco is associated with a local crustal upwarp.[81]

The basement in the 70 kilometres (43 mi) thick crust[76] is formed by Paleozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, including marine and volcanic sediments and intrusive rocks.[74] It is mostly buried by Cenozoic volcanic rocks, except in isolated outcrops both west and east of Llullaillaco[82] such as the 282 ± 7 million years old Llullaillaco plutonic complex[83] and the Devonian-Carboniferous Zorritas Formation.[84] The rocks of Llullaillaco overlie both this basement and Tertiary ignimbrites.[35] The terrain around the mountain is partially covered by alluvial sediments, debris and pumice.[23]

Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone may be affected by deep-seated lineaments, which control where volcanoes and geothermal systems form.[85][74] Such lineaments extend diagonally across the volcanic arc and are accompanied by volcanic manifestations at substantial distances from the arc.[86] One of these lineaments, the Archibarca, runs beneath Llullaillaco and is also associated with the Escondida copper deposit, [87] Corrida de Cori,[85] Archibarca, Antofalla,[88] and the Galán caldera;[87] it influenced the development of Llullaillaco.[72] Other lineaments include the Calama-El Toro.[86]

Composition

Llullaillaco has produced dacites,[36] which define a potassium- and aluminum-rich[89] calc-alkaline suite. Some rocks display shoshonitic characteristics[90] typical for lavas erupted at large distance from the trenches.[91] Others have medium contents of potassium.[92] Phenocrysts are mostly hornblende or pyroxene with lesser quantities of biotite and quartz; apatite, iron-titanium oxides, opaque minerals, sphene, sulfides and zircon are rare.[40][93] Some phenocrysts show evidence of a complex history.[90] Older rocks contain hematite.[40] Elemental sulfur is found at Llullaillaco,[94] specifically at Azufrera Esperanto;[36] sulfur reserves are estimated to amount to 210,000 tons[convert: unknown unit].[95]

Trace element data are typical for Central Volcanic Zone rocks.[92] Rocks become more felsic the younger they are:[92] Older rocks contain more quartz and biotite than recent ones,[96] and display higher iron and lower alkali metal contents.[89]

The composition may reflect magma differentiation in a solitary magma chamber, but with occasional replenishment with more primitive/[92] differentiated melts.[92] Processes in the chamber such as magma mixing and plagioclase crystallization[97] yielded melts with homogeneous composition and low volatile concentrations that upon eruption formed viscous lava flows.[90] A lithospheric structure probably directed magma flows over long time periods along the same pathway,[68] and magma interacted with the crust as it ascended.[90] The depth of the magma source probably varied over the history of the volcano.[98] The total magma output at Llullaillaco is about 0.05 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.012 cu mi/ka)[44]-0.02–0.04 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.0048–0.0096 cu mi/ka).[45]

Geological history

The terrain around Llullaillaco consists of andesite and dacite lavas and pyroclastics of Miocene to Pliocene age.[26] Some Oligocene-Miocene layers are exposed in the Quebrada de las Zorritas.[99] Dates obtained by argon-argon dating range between 11.94 ± 0.13 and 5.48 ± 0.07 million years ago. 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) west of Llullaillaco do Paleozoic granites and volcanite rocks crop out. Elsewhere these layers are buried by Cenozoic rocks.[82] There are several faults in the region, such as the Imilac-Salina del Fraile lineament whose movement has influenced the activity of Llullaillaco.[100]

Volcanism in the Central Andes began during the Jurassic.[101] A pause in volcanism occurred between 38 and 27 million years ago;[71] about 26 million years ago, the Farallon Plate broke up into the Cocos and Nazca Plates,[101] volcanism resumed in the Central Andes[71] and increased subduction of the Nazca Plate during the late Oligocene caused the volcanic arc to broaden to about 250 kilometres (160 mi). 25 million years ago, the "Quechua event" triggered the uplift of the Puna-Altiplano, a highland covering a surface area of 500,000 square kilometres (190,000 sq mi) and reaching an altitude of 3,700 metres (12,100 ft). In the late Miocene-Pliocene a phase of strong ignimbrite volcanism occurred. About 2 million years ago, the "Diaguita deformation" was characterized by a change in the deformation regimen from crustal shortening to strike-slip faulting and of volcanism from voluminous felsic eruptions to isolated stratovolcanoes and back-arc mafic volcanism. A slowdown in the subduction may have caused this change. Nowadays most volcanism occurs at the western edge of the Puna, where volcanoes such as Lascar and Llullaillaco formed.[72][86]

Climate

The climate in the region is cold, dry[77] and sunny.[29] Only a few climate data are available on Llullaillaco.[102] Temperatures at the summit are about −15 °C (5 °F)[13]-−13 °C (9 °F),[13] with temperature maximums ranging −8 – −13 °C (18–9 °F) between summer and winter.[103] The temperature of the ground fluctuates strongly between day and night,[104] and can reach 12.5 °C (54.5 °F) in summer.[105] The climate is extremely sunny on account of the lack of cloud cover, the high altitude, and the close coincidence between summer solstice with the day where Earth is closest to the Sun,[106][29] perhaps one of the sunniest places on Earth.[50]

Mean annual precipitation reaches 20–50 millimetres (0.79–1.97 in)[50] and is episodic to the point that it is difficult to give average values.[107] It is most often associated with either convective or cyclonic activity during summer and winter, respectively.[108] Snowfall can occur down to altitudes of 4,000 metres (13,000 ft).[109] The Andean Dry Diagonal, where half of the precipitation falls in summer and the other half in winter,[27][110] crosses the Andes at Llullaillaco.[111] It and the Atacama Desert owe its existence to the rainshadow effect of the Andes, air subsidence within South Pacific High, and the cold Humboldt Current off the Pacific coast.[107][112]

The climate has not always been uniformly dry. Between 14,000 and 9,500 years ago[71] during the late glacial,[113] a wet period gave rise to lakes in the Altiplano[114] (Lake Tauca pluvial).[113] Water discharge from Llullaillaco and neighbouring mountains[115] into Salar de Punta Negra increased,[116] leading to the formation of standing water bodies.[117] As glaciers retreated between 15,000 and 10,000 years ago, lakes shrank.[77] Climate was extremely dry between 9,000 and 4,000 years ago[71] and temperatures warmer than today during the early Holocene (Holocene Climatic Optimum).[118] Deposits in Quebrada de las Zorritas valley indicate that between 2,436.8 ± 49 and 1,593.1 ± 36 radiocarbon years ago runoff was more intense.[119]

Glaciers

Snow patches on Llullaillaco

It is not clear whether there are glaciers on Llullaillaco - some sources contend that there are no glaciers on Llullaillaco, which would make it the highest mountain in the world without one,[120] while others state that there are small glaciers above 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) altitude.[57] In 2006 the General Water Directorate of Chile stated that there were seven separate ice bodies on the mountain.[121] An ice slab was reported in 1958 on the western slope[122] between 5,600–6,500 metres (18,400–21,300 ft) elevation,[123] and in 1992 an ice body[124] - however, neither would count as glaciers.[125][124] The lack of glaciers is a consequence of the dry climate,[126] as the high insolation and dry air cause all snow to evaporate before it can form glaciers.[127]

However, Llullaillaco has snow fields[29] tied to permafrost in the ground.[128] The snowline lies at 5,400–5,800 metres (17,700–19,000 ft) elevation[77] and the mountain has a permanent snow cover.[19] 1–1.5 metres (3 ft 3 in – 4 ft 11 in) high penitentes occur above 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) altitude,[129] especially in more sheltered areas[130] and around the old crater.[131] 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) high penitentes were observed in 1954.[132] The snowfields on Llullaillaco supply water to the Salar de Punta Negra.[133]

The occurrence of past glaciation at Llullaillaco[134][115] and its neighbours during the Pleistocene is also uncertain.[39] Some traces of past glacier activity are found in the summit area,[39] cirques may have existed on the northwestern slope,[135] where glaciers may have descended to 5,100 metres (16,700 ft) elevation,[136] and a moraine girdle may have formed at 4,900 metres (16,100 ft) elevation.[137] There is evidence of glacial landforms destroyed by lava[136][46] and volcanic mudflows.[138] It was once believed that Llullaillaco had experienced three large glaciations,[139] but the "moraines" are actually mudflow[136]/volcanic deposits.[140] Even when temperatures decreased during the last glacial maximum, the climate at Llullaillaco may have been too dry to permit glacier development.[141] If any glacier expansion took place, it was during the late glacial when the climate was moister.[113]

Periglacial phenomena are observed on Llullaillaco, commencing at 4,300 metres (14,100 ft) altitude and reaching their maximum around 5,100–5,400 metres (16,700–17,700 ft) on the Chilean and 5,350–5,700 metres (17,550–18,700 ft) on the Argentine side. There, solifluction and cryoplanation surfaces are developed,[109] including lobe-shaped ground and block ramparts.[142] These landforms have been mapped on the northwestern side of the volcano.[143] Patterned ground is also common.[144] Permafrost is found at higher altitudes.[109] Cryoplanation and solifluction landforms are also observed on Iris and Mitral.[99] The landforms probably developed during past periods where the climate was more humid.[109]

Flora and fauna

Vegetation is scarce in the arid climate,[57] especially below 3,700–3,800 metres (12,100–12,500 ft) altitude where precipitation is too low to permit vegetation development. Acantholippia punensis, Atriplex imbricata, and Cristaria andicola are the first plants that grow above this elevation. They are joined at 3,900 metres (12,800 ft) altitude by Stipa frigida which can be found up to 4,910 metres (16,110 ft) of altitude. The maximum vegetation density is found around 4,250 metres (13,940 ft) with 12% of the surface. At this altitude, Adesmia spinosissima, Fabiana bryoides, Mulinum crassifolium, and Parastrephia quadrangularis are found in addition to the previously mentioned plants. Above this altitude, plant cover decreases again, probably due to low temperatures,[52][145] and disappears above 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) elevation.[129] Deyeuxia curvula, Distichia muscoides and Oxychloe andina form wetlands (bofedales) in valleys.[146] Mice were filmed at 6,205 metres (20,358 ft) in 2013, and an expedition in February 2020 found mice all the way to the summit, where a mouse of the species Phyllotis xanthopygus was captured. This is the highest altitude in the world at which a mammal has been found to live.[147]

Weakly developed[148] fungal[149] and bacterial communities have been found in the soils at Llullaillaco,[148] with better developed algal[150] and cyanobacterial communities found on the penitentes;[151] some soil microbes may depend on volcanic carbon monoxide.[148] Algae, lichens, microbial mats and vascular plants grow around and in Lago Llullaillaco.[152] The environmental conditions in these soils are among the most extreme on the planet,[153] with aridity, strong UV radiation, daily freeze-thaw cycles and a lack of nutrients. Organic material transported on the mountain by winds may be the principal source of food for some of these microorganisms.[154]

The area of Llullaillaco is part of the Llullaillaco National Park,[155] a protected area[156] created in 1995[8] and is named after the mountain.[157] Air pollution from the Escondida copper mine may reach Llullaillaco and threaten ecosystems there.[158]

Archaeology

Llullaillaco was first climbed by Incas centuries ago.[159] In the 1950s a number of archaeological sites were discovered on Llullaillaco.[160] After the initial discovery in 1952, further expeditions by various researchers and organizations took place in 1953, 1954, 1958, 1961, 1974, 1983, 1984, 1985 and 1993.[161] Some sites were looted after their discovery.[162]

Archeological site at the top of Llullaillaco

At least three paths lead up to Llullaillaco. Two of them meet at a tambo or inn at an altitude of 5,200 metres (17,100 ft)[3] on the northeastern flank,[19] while the third passes through a cementerio (cemetery) where 16 bodies were found in 1972[3] among half-destroyed walls[162] of a building complex, which was built on terraces[163] and partly buried by loose debris from the mountain above.[164] This path continues past two water sites before reaching the tambo[77] at 5,200 metres (17,100 ft) elevation on the northeastern flank.[19] It was probably a base camp for ascents[165] and features numerous buildings. Ceramics have been found there.[77] From the tambo, the path[77] passes by small buildings and protecting walls at 5,600 metres (18,400 ft) elevation which form a waystation.[165] This path is an Inca ceremonial path with an initial width of 2–1.5 metres (6 ft 7 in – 4 ft 11 in), narrowing in steeper reaches.[166] The path is marked by cairns, probably to indicate where the path is when the volcano is covered by snow.[3] The path continues past another waystation[77] at 6,300 metres (20,700 ft) elevation[165] until it ends at 6,500 metres (21,300 ft) altitude at the Portezuelo del Inca ruins, where a staircase begins.[3] One path goes up to the summit, the other to a plateau at 6,715 metres (22,031 ft) elevation.[77] Another set of protecting walls and small buildings forms another waystation at 6,550 metres (21,490 ft) elevation.[165] Two enclosures and a 11 by 6 metres (36 ft × 20 ft) platform are on the plateau,[77] forming the highest archaeological site on Earth.[167] The paths were built by the Inca,[77] their construction methods perhaps reflecting Inca mythology,[168] and were discovered by Mathias Rebitsch in 1958.[169]

The bodies found at Llullaillaco have been subject to isotope ratio studies to determine what they ate[170] and where they came from.[171] Numerous other studies have been conducted at the volcano, including on plants[172] and textiles found in the burials.[173]

Llullaillaco appears to have been the most important Inca sacred mountain in the region.[174] In the case of Llullaillaco, they may have been sites of pilgrimage[163] used by the local Atacama people during Inca rule.[175] About forty-five structures have been identified at Llullaillaco, distributed across several sites and with clear architectonic differences, implying not all of them were built by the state.[77] Archeological sites are also found in the valleys that drain Llullaillaco towards the Salar de Punta Negra,[176] including the Quebrada Llullaillaco and the Quebrada de las Zorritas.[177] The paths connect with the major north–south[178][179] Inca road[180] that runs between San Pedro de Atacama and Copiapo.[179] Several tambos are found along the road close to Llullaillaco.[181]

Archaeological sites on mountains are widespread in the Andes, with forty mountains featuring sites in Salta Province alone.[161] Because of the findings, the summit area of the volcano in 2001 was classified as a Lugar Histórico Nacional by the government of Argentina.[182] The mountain is still important to the inhabitants of Socaire east of the Salar de Atacama.[183]

Children of Llullaillaco

Main article: Children of Llullaillaco

In March 1999, excavations of the platform[165] by a team of archaeologists[184] led by Johan Reinhard,[185] found three mummies of children buried at 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) depth in partially natural, partially excavated pits.[13] They were a 7-year-old boy, a 6-year-old girl and a 15-year-old girl,[184] which are known as "El Niño", "La Niña del Rayo" and "La Doncella" respectively.[161] They were found clothed and in a seated position.[186] It is not clear how they were killed; most likely, they were suffocated or buried alive but unconscious.[187] The younger children bore traces of cranial deformation.[188] The bodies were well preserved by the cold, dry and oxygen-poor conditions of the summit[189] except for the youngest mummy, which had been damaged by lightning.[184]

They were ostensibly human sacrifices offered to the gods of the Incan pantheon on mountaintops.[190] Inca human sacrifices were initiated for various reasons, either to mark particular events such as the death of an Inca emperor, to appease nature during natural disasters or to secure resources from the mountain gods. The chosen sacrifices were children, as the gods were thought to prefer pure offerings, preferably children with unblemished bodies and virgin girls. According to historical sources and analyses of the mummies, the children came from families with high social standing and were well nourished. They were brought to mountains thousands of kilometres away and killed at the top.[187][191]

Other archaeological objects found along with the mummies included: Bags made out of leather, headdresses with feathers, pottery (cooking instruments like jars, plates, pots and vases), statues representing both people (male and female) and animals made out of gold, silver or Spondylus (oyster) shells, shoes and textiles,[13][160] wooden and woolen vessels. The vessels and bags contained coca leaves, hairs and human nails.[160] A total of 145 objects were found together with the mummies.[177] The hairs found with the mummies and as offerings accompanying the mummies have been subject of research to establish their background.[192]

Their discovery drew interest among specialists and the public.[13] In 2003 they were at the Catholic University of Salta.[184] The mummies were kept in a specially designed laboratory of the University of Salta and could be removed only for short timespans (less than an hour). Each mummy is wrapped in acid-free cotton, surgical material and a transparent plastic cover. The environmental conditions were monitored to prevent thawing or drying.[184] Starting from 2007 they can be found at the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology of Argentina.[193] The placement of the mummies in museums led to lengthy disputes with organizations advocating the rights of indigenous people.[194]

Eruption history

At least two stages of construction are recognized, Llullaillaco I and Llullaillaco II. The first stage originated from two centres[82] (Llullaillaco and Azufrera Esperanto) developed in a north–south line, producing up to 20 kilometres (12 mi) long lava flows and lava domes in their summit regions. The cones and associated lava flows are heavily eroded by[35] glaciation and hydrothermal alteration[82] and buried by more recent volcanic rocks, but still make up about 70% of the surface of the volcano especially in its western sector. The former crater of Llullaillaco forms a plateau at 5,600–6,100 metres (18,400–20,000 ft) elevation.[35] At the 5,561 metres (18,245 ft) high Azufrera Esperanto mountain 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of Llullaillaco little original volcanic substance is preserved and where erosion has exposed deeply altered white rock.[35] Llullaillaco II on the southern and northeastern flank is better preserved; the toes of the lava flows reach thicknesses of 500 metres (1,600 ft).[40] Its lava flows are less extensive than the ones of Llullaillaco I.[76] Pyroclastic flow deposits with a composition similar to Llullaillaco II are found on the southern slope of the volcano and may have formed before the lava eruptions began.[36]

An older unit is formed by ignimbrites and pyroclastic flows.[76] Older lava flows extend west from the volcano and are partly buried by sediments closer to the edifice.[35] The landslide probably took place during an eruption.[57] An explosive eruption of Llullaillaco II produced a 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long deposit of lava blocks and pyroclastic pumice,[195][36] with fallout reaching Cerro Rosado.[41] It is possible that some lava flows interacted with glaciers, causing them to melt.[136]

Llullaillaco I is of early Pleistocene age.[82] The oldest date, 1.5 ± 0.4 million years ago, was determined on a lava flow northwest of Llullaillaco's main edifice.[23] Two dates obtained on lava flows of Llullaillaco II are 401,000 ± 6,000 and 1,500,000 ± 400,000 years ago, based on argon-argon dating and potassium-argon dating respectively.[40] At first they were considered to be Holocene, but argon-argon dating indicates they are of late Pleistocene age.[2] The northern young lava flow is less than one million years old based on potassium-argon dating, the southern flow is 48,000 ± 12,000 years old based on argon-argon dating on biotite.[40] Surface exposure dating based on helium has yielded ages of 41,000 ± 1,000 years for Llullaillaco I at over 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) altitude, of 5,600 ± 250 years for Llullaillaco II at an altitude of over 6,000 metres (20,000 ft)[136] and of 930 ± 140 years on one of the young lava flows.[196]

Historical activity and hazards

Llullaillaco has been active in historical time,[197] with the last eruption occurring in the late 18th century[198] although the presence of archaeological sites implies that activity was relatively weak.[199] Eruptions were recorded in February 1854, September 1868, and May 1877,[2] the second with lava flows and the other two with explosive eruptions,[199] but there were no direct witnesses.[196] According to a report in 1899, during the 1868 eruption large fissures opened on its slopes[5] and lava flowed out of the volcano.[199] The 1877 eruption may have been triggered by the 1877 Iquique earthquake.[200] Other reports mention eruptions in 1920, 1931, 1936 and 1960.[195] According to anecdotes recorded in the 19th century, the mountain occasionally smoked,[201][202] including during the mapping of the Chile-Argentina border on 5 May 1879.[203] Allegedly palaeontologist and zoologist Rodolfo Amando Philippi saw the mountain smoke in 1854,[201] but Philippi's own report makes no mention of smoke.[204]

The volcano is currently considered dormant[30] and there are no known fumaroles,[205] but some ice on the volcano bears traces of geothermal heating.[131] There are warm springs around Salar de Llullaillaco.[206] Llullaillaco is classified as Argentina's 16th most dangerous volcano in a list of 38.[207] Future eruptive activity may result in the emission of pyroclastic flows and lava flows[195] and may cause sector collapses, although they would be a small danger to human life, given that the area is sparsely inhabited.[58]

See also

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Bibliography

  • Darack, Ed (2001). Wild Winds: Adventures in the Highest Andes. Cordee / DPP. ISBN 978-1884980817.
  • Reinhard, Johan: The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., 2005.
  • Reinhard, Johan and Ceruti, María Constanza: "Inca Rituals and Sacred Mountains: A Study of the World's Highest Archaeological Sites" Los Angeles: UCLA, 2010.
  • Reinhard, Johan and Ceruti, María Constanza: Investigaciones arqueológicas en el Volcán Llullaillaco: Complejo ceremonial incaico de alta montaña. Salta: EUCASA, 2000.
  • Reinhard, Johan; Ceruti, María Constanza (2006). "Sacred Mountains, Ceremonial Sites and Human Sacrifice Among the Incas". Archaeoastronomy. 19: 1–43.
  • Ceruti, María Constanza: Llullaillaco: Sacrificios y Ofrendas en un Santuario Inca de Alta Montaña. Salta: EUCASA, 2003.
  • Reinhard, Johan (1993). "Llullaillaco: An Investigation of the World's Highest Archaeological Site". Latin American Indian Literatures Journal. 9 (1): 31–54.
  • Beorchia, Antonio: "El cementerio indígena del volcán Llullaillaco." Revista del Centro de Investigaciones Arqueológicas de Alta Montaña 2: 36–42, 1975, San Juan.
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  • Wilson, Andrew; Taylor, Timothy; Ceruti, Constanza; Reinhard, Johan; Chávez, José Antonio; Grimes, Vaughan; Wolfram-Meier-Augenstein; Cartmell, Larry; Stern, Ben; Richards, Michael; Worobey, Michael; Barnes, Ian; Gilbert, Thomas (2007). "Stable isotope and DNA evidence for ritual sequences in Inca child sacrifice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (42): 16456–16461. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10416456W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0704276104. PMC 2034262. PMID 17923675.
  • Complete description, history, place name and routes of Llullaillaco in Andeshandbook
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Llullaillaco.

Reise durch die Wüste Atacama, auf Befehl der Chilenischen Regierung im Sommer 1853–54 unternommen. Anton. 1860.

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