Ganesha

For other uses, see Ganesha (disambiguation).

Ganesha (Gaņeśa)
Devanagari	गणेश

Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश; gaņeśa; listen^ⓘ) is one of the best known and beloved representations of God in Hinduism. Although he is known by many other names and represented in varying physical forms, he is easily recognizable as having the head of an elephant and a pot-belly. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits, and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesh is worshipped as the lord of beginnings, the lord of obstacles (Vighnesha), the guardian of dharma, patron of arts and sciences, and the god of intellect and wisdom. As such he is honoured with affection at the start of any ritual or ceremony and invoked as the "Patron of Letters" at the beginning of any writing.

Ganesha appears as a distinct deity in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries AD during the Gupta Period. He quickly rose in popularity, and in the 9th century AD he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism, a Hindu denomination. A sect of devotees, called Ganapatya (Sanskrit: गाणपत्य; gāņapatya), who identify Ganesha as the Supreme deity, crystallized during this period and the principal scriptures dedicated to his worship, the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, were produced.

In modern times, Ganesha is said to be the most worshipped divinity in India. Worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other forms of the divine and various Hindu sects worship him regardless of other affiliations. Thus Ganesha is propitiated as the "Dispeller of Obstacles" by Śaivites, Vashṇavites, Śaktas, Smārtas and Kumāras. The devotional cult of Ganesha is widely diffused extending even beyond India and among Jains and Buddhists.

Etymology and other names

File:Dagdusheth.jpg

Shree Dagdusheth Halwai Ganpati is the city god of Pune, a city located in the western Indian state of Maharashtra.

He is called by many other names, including Ganapati and Vighneśvara. The Hindu title of respect 'Shri' (Sanskrit: श्री; śrī, also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name.

The name Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश; gaņeśa; listen^ⓘ) (also spelled as Ganesa; Hindi: Ganesh) is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (Sanskrit: गण; gaṇa) meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system + isha (Sanskrit: ईश; īśa) meaning lord or master. The word gana in association with Gaņeśa is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of Lord Śiva's retinue. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. So some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of created categories" such as the elements, etc. The translation "Lord of Hosts" may convey a familiar sense to Western readers. The name Ganapati (Sanskrit: गणपति; gaṇapati) is a synonym, being a compound composed of गण + पति (pati, ruler or lord).

Like other devas (Hindu male deities) and devis (female deities), Ganesha has many other titles of respect or symbolic names, and is often worshipped through the chanting of the Ganesha Sahasranama, which literally means "a thousand names of Ganesha". The Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture that venerates Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha.

The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the famous eight Ganesha (aṣṭavināyaka) temples in Maharashtra. The name Vignesha, meaning "Lord of Obstacles", refers to his primary function in Hindu mythology as being able to both create and remove obstacles (vighna).

The Tamil name for Ganesha is Pillaiyar. According to A. K. Narain, in the Dravidian family of languages pallu, pella, and pell signify "tooth or tusk of an elephant" but more generally "elephant", and in Tamil country pille means a "child" and pillaiyar a "noble child". In discussing the name Pillaiyar, Anita Raina Thapan notes that since the Pali word pillaka has the significance of "a young elephant" it is possible that pille originally meant the young of the elephant.

Iconography

This statue of Ganesha was created in the Mysore District of Karnataka in the 13th century.

Ganesha figures show wide variation with distinct patterns changing over time. He may be represented standing, dancing, as a warrior in heroic action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down, or in a remarkable range of contemporary situations when depicted in festival displays.

The figure shown to the right is typical of Ganesha statuary from the early medieval period, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own cult. A virtually identical statue has been dated as (973-1200) by Martin-Dubost. It shows some of his most universal iconographic elements. He has the head of an elephant, a big belly, and carries some form of tasty delicacy in his left hand which he samples with his trunk. The statue has four arms. The right upper arm holds an axe, while the left upper arm holds a noose, symbols of his ability to cut through obstacles or to create them as needed.

mor di knulla far din:)

• He has a pot belly. The protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in the earliest Ganesha statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries AD). Hindus of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation of Ganesha. An opening prayer to Ganesha is a common practice in arts such as Bharatnatyam dance and plays. Mantras such as Om Shri Ganeshāya Namah ("Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha"), and others, are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (literally, "Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts"). He is commonly worshipped with red flowers, such as the red Hibiscus. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) is used in his worship. Ganesha is also offered various sweets, such as modaka.

Ganesh Chaturthi

In India, there is an important festival honouring Ganesha that is celebrated for ten days starting from Ganesh Chaturthi. This festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi when images (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed into the most convenient body of water.

The Ganapati festival is celebrated by Hindus throughout India with great devotional fervour. While it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra, it is performed all over India. In Mumbai, India's most populated city, the festival assumes huge proportions. On the last day of the festival, millions of people of all ages descend onto the streets leading up to the sea, dancing and singing, to the rhythmic accompaniment of drums and cymbals.

Associations

Aum

Ganesha Aum jewel

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum (ॐ, also called Om, Omkara, oṃkāra, or Aumkara). The term oṃkārasvarūpa ("Aum is his form") in connection with Ganesha refers to this belief that he is the personification of the primal sound. This association is attested in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. The relevant passage is translated by Paul Courtright as follows:

You are Brahmā, Vişņu, and Rudra [Śiva]. You are Agni, Vāyu, and Sūrya. You are Candrama. You are earth, space, and heaven. You are the manifestation of the mantra "Oṃ".

A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda as follows:

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire and air. You are the sun and the moon. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka, Antariksha-loka, and Swargaloka. You are Om. (that is to say, You are all this).

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of his body and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scrips.

Buddhi

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of Intelligence. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, where many stories develop that showcase his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and in the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya. This name also appears in a special list of twenty-one names that Gaṇeśa says are of special importance at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama. The word priya can mean "fond of", but in a marital context, it can mean "a lover" or "husband". Buddhipriya probably refers to Ganesha's well-known association with intelligence.

This association with wisdom also appears in the name Buddha, which appears as a name of Ganesha in the second verse of the Ganesha Purana version of the Ganesha Sahasranama. The positioning of this name at the beginning of the Ganesha Sahasranama indicates that the name was of importance. Bhaskararaya's commentary on the Ganesha Sahasranama says that this name for Ganesha means that the Buddha was an avatar of Ganesha. This interpretation is not widely known even among Ganapatya, and the Buddha is not mentioned in the lists of Ganesha's incarnations given in the main sections of the Ganesha Purana and Mudgala Purana. Bhaskararaya also provides a more general interpretation of this name as simply meaning that Ganesha's very form is "eternal elightenment" (nityabuddaḥ), so he is named Buddha.

First chakra

Ganesha is associated with the first or "root" chakra (mūlādhāra). This association is attested in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. As translated by Courtright this passage reads:

You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].

A variant version of this passage is translated by Chinmayananda:

You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called "Muladhara".

Mouse as vahana

Ganesha riding on his mouse. Note the red flowers offered by the devotees. A sculpture at the Vaidyeshwara temple at Talakkadu, Karnataka, India

Ganesha is often shown riding on, or attended by, a mouse. Martin-Dubost says that in central and western India the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Gaṇeśa in the 7th century A.D., always placing the rat close to his feet. The mouse as a mount is mentioned for the first time in written sources in the Matsya Purana, and later in the Brahmananda Purana and in the Ganesha Purana where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle only in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names Mūṣakavāhana ("Mouse-mount") and Ākhuketana ("Rat-banner") appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.

Devotee literature provides a variety of interpretations regarding what the mouse means. Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Martin-Dubost thinks it is a symbol of the fact that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places. Another interpretation by David Brown says that:

In reality, it (vahana) also tells us about the nature of the God concerned. Thus, to take a different example, Ganesha, the god of enterprise, has rat as his vahana precisely because the rat is viewed rivaling the god in his ability to past any obstacle.

A completely different interpretation is given by Krishan, who notes that the rat is a destructive creature and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ which means "stealing, robbing". It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. By this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat proclaimed his function as Vigneshvara, and also gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāmata-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.

Obstacles

He is the Lord of Obstacles both of a material and spiritual order. He can place obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked, and can remove blockages just as easily. The Sanskrit terms vighnakartā ("obstacle-creator") and vighnahartā ("obstacle-destroyer") summarize the dual functions. Both functions are vital to his character, as Robert Brown explains:

Even after the Purāṇic Gaṇeśa is well-defined, in art Gaṇeśa remained predominantly important for his dual role as creator and remover of obstacles, thus having both a negative and a positive aspect.

Paul Courtright says that:

Gaṇeśa is also called Vighneśvara or Vighnarāja, the Lord of Obstacles. His task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation.

Family and consorts

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Shiva and Parvati with their son Ganesh

Further information: Consorts of Ganesha

While he is popularly considered to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, in Puranic myths there are several different versions of his birth. In some stories he was created by Shiva alone, by Parvati alone, by Shiva and Parvati together, or in a mysterious manner that is discovered by Shiva and Parvati.

Ganesh's family includes his brother, Skanda (also called Karttikeya or Murugan). Which brother is the elder? The legends vary in different regions of India. In the North, generally Skanda is said to be the elder brother, and Ganesha the younger; and in the South it is believed that Ganesha is the first son and Skanda is the second one. Ganesha and Skanda are known to have many disputes. Shiva usually sided with Skanda, while Parvati favoured Ganesha. Stories of the rivalry between the brothers may reflect historical tensions between sects. Prior to the emergence of Ganesha, Skanda had a long and glorious career as an important martial deity, from about 500 BC to about 600 AD, when his worship declined significantly in the North, almost synchronously with the successful rise of his rival Ganesha. A poem describes the two boys being asked about one of their dispute by their mother. Each of the two sons has unusual features, as shown in this passage:

O, Ganapati
What is it Mother?
Why are you crying?
Karttikeya is pulling my ears
What is this, Skanda? Why are you teasing him?
He first counted my eyes
O, Gajanana ("elephant-Face") this is not proper behaviour from you
He was measuring my trunk, mother mine
These two in one place, she observes and laughs
... And Shiva's consort is agitated.
May she protect you.

The issue of Ganesha's marital status has been the subject of considerable scholarly review, and shows much variation. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as being a brahmacharin (brahmacārin) (that is, never having married).. The second pattern involves one or more of the following three concepts, which are sometimes personified as goddesses: Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity). All three of these concepts are associated with Ganesha, but they are not always personified as his wives. A third pattern involves the goddesses Sarasvati (goddess of culture and art) and Lakshmi (goddess of luck and prosperity), symbolizing that these qualities always accompany each other. A fourth pattern links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo, mainly in Bengal.

Buddhi, Siddhi, and Riddhi

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Shri Mayureshwar, Morgaon

In the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana, there are descriptions of Ganesha flanked by Buddhi and Siddhi. In Chapter I.18.24-39 of the Ganesha Purana, Brahmā performs worship in honour of Ganesha. During the puja, Ganesha himself causes Buddhi and Siddhi to appear so that Brahmā can offer them back to Ganesha. Ganesha accepts them as offerings. In a variant, the two are born from Brahmā's mind and are given by Brahmā to Ganesha. Buddhi and Siddhi are best identified as his consorts in the Shiva Purana (Śiva Purāṇa), where Ganesha cleverly wins the two desirable daugters of Prajāpati over Skanda. In the Shiva Purana version of the story, Ganesha begets two sons: Kshema (Kşema, prosperity) and Lâbha (profit). In the 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa, Ganesha, married to Riddhi and Siddhi, has a daugther named Santoshi Ma — goddess of satisfaction. Santoshi Ma's cult has been cited by Anita Raina Thapan and Larence Cohen as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.

Aside from Puranic texts, evidence of Ganesha's wives can be found elsewhere. In the Ganesha Temple at Morgaon (the central shrine for the regional aṣṭavināyaka complex), Buddhi and Siddhi stand to the right and left sides of the Ganesha image. In northern India, the two female figures are said to be Siddhi and Riddhi; Riddhi substitutes for Buddhi with no Puranic basis. In the Ajitāgama, a Tantric form of Ganesha called Haridra Ganapati is described as turmeric-colored and flanked by two unnamed wives distinct from shaktis. The word "wives" (Sanskrit: दारा; dārā) is specifically used (Sanskrit: दारायुगलम्; dārāyugalam).

Interpretations of relationships

Ganesha with the Ashta (meaning eight) Siddhi. The Ashtasiddhi are associated with Ganesha. Painted by Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906).

In dicussing the Shiva Purana version, Courtright comments that while Ganesha is sometimes depicted as sitting between these two feminine deities, "these women are more like feminine emanations of his androgynous nature, Shaktis rather than spouses having their own characters and spouses." Ludo Rocher says that "descriptions of Gaṇeśa as siddhi-buddhi-samanvita 'accompanied by, followed by siddhi and buddhi.' often seem to mean no more than that, when Gaṇeśa is present, siddhi 'success' and buddhi 'wisdom' are not far behind. Such may well have been the original conception, of which the marriage was a later development." In verse 49a of the Ganesha Purana version of the Ganesha Sahasranama, one of Ganesha's names is Ŗddhisiddhipravardhana ("Enhancer of material and spiritual success"). In the Matsya Purana, Gaṇesha is identified as the "owner" of Riddhi (prosperity) and Buddhi (wisdom). In discussing the northern Indian sources, Cohen remarks:

They are depersonalized figures, interchangeable, and given their frequent depiction fanning Gaṇeśa are often referred to as dasīs — servants. Their names represent the benefits accrued by the worshipper of Gaṇeśa, and thus Gaṇeśa is said to be the owner of Ṛddhi and Siddhi; he similarly functions as the father of Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha (profit), a pair similar to the Śiva Purāṇa's Kṣema (prosperity) and Lābha. Though in Varanasi the paired figures were usually called Ṛddhi and Siddhi, Gaṇeśa's relationship to them was often vague. He was their mālik, their owner; they were more often dasīs than patnīs (wives).

His relationship with the Ashtasiddhi — the eight spiritual attaintments obtained by the practice of yoga — is also of this depersonalized type. In later iconography, these eight marvellous powers are represented by a group of young women who surround Ganesha. Raja Ravi Varma's painting illustrates a recent example of this iconographic form. The painted includes fans, which establish the feminine figures as attendants.

Motif of shaktis

A distinct type of iconographic image of Ganesha shows him with a single human-looking shakti (śakti). According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, the oldest known depiction of Ganesha with a shakti of this type dates from the sixth century AD. The consort lacks a distinctive personality or iconographic repertoire. According to Cohen and Alice Getty, the appearance of this shakti motif parallels the emergence of tantric branches of the Ganapatya cult. Six distinct forms of "Shakti Ganapati" can be linked to the Ganapatyas. Of the thirty-two standard meditation forms for Ganesha that appear in the Sritattvanidhi (Śrītattvanidhi), six include a shakti. A common form of this motif shows Ganesha seated with the shakti upon his left hip, holding a bowl of flat cakes or round sweets, with him turning his trunk to his left to touch the tasty food. In some of the tantric forms of this image, the gesture is modified to take on erotic overtones. Some tantric variants of this form are described in the Śāradātilaka Tantram.

Prithvi Kumar Agrawala has traced at least six different lists of fifty or more aspects or forms of Ganesha each with their specific female consorts or shaktis. In these lists, goddess names such as Hrī, Śrī, and Puṣṭī are found. However, Buddhi, Siddhi, and Riddhi do not appear on any of these lists, which also do not provide any details about the personalities or distinguishing iconographic forms for these shaktis. Agrawala concludes that all of the lists were derived from one original set of names. The earliest of the lists occurs in the Nārada Purāṇa (I.66.124-38), and appears to have been used with minor variations in the Ucchiṣṭagaṇapati Upāsanā. These lists are of two types. In the first type the names of various forms of Ganesha are given with a clear-cut pairing of a named shakti for that form. In the second type, as found in the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa (II.IV.44.63-76) and the commentary of Rāghavabhaṭṭa on the Śāradātilaka (I.115), fifty or more names of Ganesha are given collectively in one group, with the names of the shaktis given collectively in a second group. The second type of list poses some problems in separating and properly connecting the names into pairs due to ambiguities in the formation of Sanskrit compound words.

Rise to prominence

First appearance

Ganesha appears in his classic form as a distinct deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in clearly-recognizable form beginning in the fourth to fifth centuries AD. Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest cult image of Ganesha so far known is is found in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period. By about the tenth century AD his independent cult had come into existence. Narain sums up controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:

[W]hat is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence or the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

Possible influences

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:

In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśsa.

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India, but concludes that:

Although by the second century AD the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut.

One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vināyakas. In Hindu mythology the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties, but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha that "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th-4th century B.C.) who cause various types of evil and suffering."

Vedic and epic literature

Ganesha as we know him today does not appear in the Vedas. The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, the teacher of the gods. H. H. Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam" (RV 2.23.1 [2222]) as "We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages". While there is no doubt that this verse refers to Brahmanaspati, the verse was later adopted for use in worship of Ganesha even to this day. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati - who is the devatā of the hymn - and Bṛhaspati only." The second passage (RV 10.112.9) equally clearly refers to Indra. Wilson translates the Sanskrit verse "ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām" as "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages".

Ganesha does not appear in literature of the epic period, but there is a late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata, where it is written that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed, but only on the condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, without pausing. The sage agreed to this condition, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages in order to get Ganesha to ask for clarifications. This is the single passage in which Ganesha appears in that epic. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata, where the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote to an appendix. Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is probably one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyasa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation to the text. Richard L. Brown dates the story as 8th century AD, and Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900 AD but he maintains that it had not yet been added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Moriz Winternitz also drew attention to the fact that a distinctive feature of Southern manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.

Puranic period

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature Ludo Rocher notes that:

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he came to acquire an elephant's head are to be found in the later Puranas composed from about 600 AD onwards, and that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are considered to be later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries AD.

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century AD when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system, which was popularized by the ninth-century philosopher Śaṅkarācārya among orthodox Brahmins of the Smārta tradition, invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya. It was instituted by Śaṅkarācārya primarily to unite the principal deities of the five major sects (Gāṇapatya, Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava, and Sūrya) on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity. The monistic philosophy preached by Śaṅkarācārya made it possible to choose one of these as a preferred principal deity and at the same time worship the other four deities as different forms of the same all-pervading Brahman. Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some brāhmaṇas chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity, developing the Ganapatya tradition reflected in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.

Beyond India and Hinduism

For more on this topic, see Ganesha outside Hinduism.

Tibetan depiction of Ganapati as Maha-Rakta (The Great Red One)

India had an impact on many countries of West and South Asia as a result of commercial and cultural contacts. Ganesha is one of many Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result. The worship of Ganesha by Hindus outside of India shows regional variation.

Ganesha was a deity particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures. The period from approximately the tenth century onwards was marked by the development of new networks of exchange, the formation of trade guilds, and a resurgence of money circulation, and it was during this time that Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders. The earliest inscription where Ganesha is invoked before any other deity is by the merchant community.

Hindus spread out to the Malay Archipelago and took their culture with them, including Ganesha. Statues of Ganesa are found throughout the Malay Archipelago in great numbers, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences. The gradual emigration of Hindus to Indochina established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side-by-side, and mutual influences can be seen in Ganesha iconography of that region.

Before the arrival of Islam, Afganistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. A few examples of sculptures from the period 5th-7th century AD have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was in vogue in the region at that time.

Ganesha also appears in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also portrayed as a Hindu demon form also called Vināyaka. His image may be found on Buddhist sculptures of the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing, a form called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal and then into Tibet. In Nepal the Hindu form of Ganesha known as Heramba was very popular, appearing with five heads and riding upon a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. In one Tibetan form he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākala, a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing. Ganesha appears in both China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In North China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated 531 AD. In Japan the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806 AD.

The Jaina canonical literature does not mention the cult of Ganesha. However Ganesha is worshipped by most Jainas, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera. Jaina connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up the worship of Ganesha as a result of commercial connections. The earliest known Jaina Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century AD. A 15th century Jaina text provides procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in the Jaina temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

See also

• Ashtavinayak, a group of eight Ganesha temples around Pune, Maharashtra
• Consorts of Ganesha, details on variant myths
• Ganapati Atharvashirsa, also known as the Ganapati Upanishad
• Ganapati temples, a list of Ganesha temples
• Ganapatya, a denomination of Hinduism that worships Ganesha as the supreme God
• Ganesha outside Hinduism, tells about Ganesha's global presence
• Ganesha Purana, includes a list of four Avatars of Ganesha
• Ganesha Sahasranama, gives 1,000 names of Ganesha
• Mudgala Purana, includes a list of eight Avatars of Ganesha
• Mythological anecdotes of Ganesha, tells mythological tales about Ganesha
• Sritattvanidhi, includes a list of thirty-two forms of Ganesha
• Vinayakas, a group of demons related to the historical origins of Ganesha

References

A murti of Ganesha in a temple at Bangalore, capital of the Indian state of Karnataka.

• Agrawala, Prithvi Kumar (1978). Goddess Vināyakī: The Female Gaṇeśa. Indian Civilization Series. Varanasi: Prithivi Prakashan. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (fourth revised & enlarged edition).
• Avalon, Arthur (1933). Śāradā Tilaka Tantram. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-1338-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (1993 reprint edition).
• Bailey, Greg (1995). Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index. Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-03647-8. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Brown, Robert L. (1991). Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God. Albany: State University of New York. ISBN 0-7914-0657-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Chinmayananda, Swami (1987). Glory of Ganesha. Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN ISBN 0-19-505742-2. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN ISBN 0-521-43878-0. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Getty, Alice (1936). Gaņeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 81-215-0377-X. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (1992 reprint edition).
• Grimes, John A. (1995). Ganapati: Song of the Self. SUNY Series in Religious Studies. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2440-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Gupta, Shakti M. (1988). Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN ISBN 81-7039-186-5. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Heras, H. (1972). The Problem of Ganapati. Delhi: Indological Book House. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Khokar, Ashish; Saraswati, S. (2005) Ganesha-Karttikeya. Rupa and Co., New Delhi. ISBN 81-291-0776-7.
• Krishan, Yuvraj (1999). Gaņeśa: Unravelling An Enigma. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-1413-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1996). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Munshiram Monoharlal Publishers. ISBN 81-215-0715-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Mumbai: Project for Indian Cultural Studies. ISBN 81-900184-3-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Nagar, Shanti Lal (1992). The Cult of Vinayaka. New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House. ISBN 81-7076-043-9. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Naik, R. S. (1985). Ganesh. Ahmedabad: Bharat Anada. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) (1995 reprint edition).
• Navaratnam, Ratna Ma. Aum Gaṇeśa, the Peace of God. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). Ganesh: The Benevolent. Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-31-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Ramachandra Rao, S. K. (1992). The Compendium on Gaņeśa. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. ISBN ISBN 81-7030-828-3. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Saraswati, Swami Satyananda. Ganesha Puja. Devi Mandir. ISBN 1-877795-46-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Sivananda, Swami (2000). Lord Shanmukha and His Worship. Shivanandanagar, Uttar Pradesh: The Divine Life Society. ISBN 81-7052-115-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) (World Wide Web edition).
• Subramuniya. Dancing With Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism (Sivena Saha Nortanam Sanatanadharmaprasnot). {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

External links

Most of the source scriptures on Ganesha are in Sanskrit. A collection of useful documents can be found here. At the same site can be found some documents and translations in English here.

• Ganesh: Symbol and presence
• 108 names of Ganesh and meanings
• Ganesha: The Elephant-God