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Makassar
Tu Mangkasaraʼ
ᨈᨘ ᨆᨀᨔᨑ
تُوْ مَڠْكَاسَرَءْ‎
Makassar men performing aʼraga in their traditional costume
Total population
2,672,590 (2010 census)[1]
Regions with significant populations
 Indonesia2,672,590[2]
Breakdown by Province in Indonesia
            South Sulawesi2,380,208
            Southeast Sulawesi59,301
            Papua41,239
            East Kalimantan31,701
            Jakarta29,444
            West Sulawesi25,367
Languages
Makassarese, Makassar Malay, Indonesian
Religion
Predominantly Islam
Related ethnic groups

The Makassar or Makassarese people are an ethnic group that inhabits the southern part of the South Peninsula, Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) in Indonesia. They live around Makassar, the capital city of the province of South Sulawesi, as well as the Konjo highlands, the coastal areas, and the Selayar and Spermonde islands. They speak Makassarese, which is closely related to Buginese,Torajan, and Mandar wich is.They speak Makassarese, which is closely related to Bugis, Toraja and Mandar which are part of the South Sulawesi language subgroup.

Makassar people have a history of migration and exploration beyond their homeland in South Sulawesi. Makassar sailors were skilled navigators and traders who ventured out into the vast waters of the Indonesian archipelago and beyond. One notable area of Makassar migration was to the northern coast of Australia, particularly what is now known as the Northern Territory. They established trade relationships with the Aboriginal communities, primarily for the purpose of harvesting and processing sea cucumber. Makassar sailors also engaged in trade and exploration throughout Southeast Asia. They established trade networks, especially in the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, and Borneo. The Makassan influence can still be seen in the cultural practices and traditions of some of these regions.

History

[edit]
Flag of the Sultanate of Gowa

The Makassar are an ethnic group originally from the southern coast of the island of Sulawesi. Their exploratory spirits have led to successful overseas explorations. This is exemplified by the Kingdom of Gowa (14-17th century), which succeeded in forming a vast Islamic empire with a large and strong naval force. Its territory included almost the entire island of Sulawesi, eastern Kalimantan, East Nusa Tenggara, part of West Nusa Tenggara, part of Maluku and some small surrounding islands. The Makassar people made treaties with Bali and cooperated with Malacca and Banten, as well as some other kingdoms within the archipelago. Similar treaties were sometimes struck with foreign powers, especially with the Portuguese. However, until its fall, Gowa was also engaged in ongoing wars with the Netherlands.[3]

The Makassar are known to have explored large sections of the world's oceans, reaching as far as South Africa. In South Africa there is an area called “Macassar”. It is suspected that the local population is of mixed indigenous and Makassar descent. Meanwhile, the name Maccassar is likely to have originated from the name for their ancestors' homeland. There are several places named Maccassar in South Africa and neighbouring Mozambique.[4]

Contact with Australia

[edit]
Main article: Makassan contact with Australia
Map of locations mentioned in this article:

Makassar trepangers from the southwest corner of Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) visited the coast of northern Australia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to collect and process trepang (also known as sea cucumber), a marine invertebrate prized for its culinary and medicinal values in Chinese markets. The term Makassan (or Macassan) is generally used to apply to all the trepangers who came to Australia, although some were from other islands in the Indonesian Archipelago, including Timor, Rote and Aru.

A female figure outlined in beeswax over painting of a white Macassan prau

Fishing fleets began to visit the northern coasts of Australia from Makassar in southern Sulawesi, Indonesia from about 1720, but possibly earlier. While Campbell Macknight's classic study of the Makassan trepang industry accepts the start of the industry as about 1720, with the earliest recorded trepang voyage made in 1751,[5] Regina Ganter of Griffith University notes a Sulawesi historian who suggests a commencement date for the industry of about 1640.[6] Ganter also notes that for some anthropologists, the extensive impact of the trepang industry on the Yolngu people suggests a longer period of contact. Arnhem Land rock art, recorded by archaeologists in 2008, appears to provide further evidence of Makassan contact in the mid-1600s.[7] Contact has even been proposed from as early as the 1500s.[8]

At the height of the trepang industry, Makassans ranged thousands of kilometres along Australia's northern coasts, arriving with the north-west monsoon each December. Makassan perahu or praus could carry a crew of thirty members, and Macknight estimated the total number of trepangers arriving each year as about one thousand.[9] The Makassan crews established themselves at various semi-permanent locations on the coast, to boil and dry the trepang before the return voyage home, four months later, to sell their cargo to Chinese merchants.[10] Marege' was the Makassan name for Arnhem land, (meaning literally "Wild Country") from the Cobourg Peninsula to Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Kayu Jawa was the name for the fishing grounds in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, from Napier Broome Bay to Cape Leveque. Other important fishing areas included West Papua, Sumbawa, Timor and Selayar. Matthew Flinders in his circumnavigation of Australia in 1803, met a Makassan trepang fleet near present day Nhulunbuy. He communicated at length with a Makassan captain, Pobasso, through his cook, who was also a Malay, and learned of the extent of the trade from this encounter. Ganter writes that there were at most "1,000 Macassans" compared to the almost "7,000 British nestled into Sydney Cove and Newcastle."[11] Nicholas Baudin also encountered 26 large perahu off the northern coast of Western Australia in the same year.[12] Ganter states that the British settlements of Fort Dundas and Fort Wellington were established as a result of Phillip Parker King's contact with Makassan trepangers in 1821.[11]

Using Daeng Rangka, the last Makassan trepanger to visit Australia, lived well into the 20th century and the history of his voyages are therefore well documented. He first made the voyage to northern Australia as a young man. He suffered dismasting and several shipwrecks, generally positive but occasionally conflicting relationships with Indigenous Australians, and was the first trepanger to pay the South Australian government trepanging licence in 1883, an impost that made the trade less viable.[13] The trade continued to dwindle toward the end of the 19th century, due to the imposition of customs duties and licence fees and probably compounded by over fishing.[citation needed] Using Daeng Rangka commanded the last Makassar perahu, which left Arnhem Land in 1907.

Lifestyle

[edit]

The main source of income of the Makassar is rice farming; however, they are also famous throughout Indonesia for their skill in trading and as fishermen. This includes the harvesting of sea cucumbers, a practice known in Indonesian as trepanging.[14]

Labor division is strict because of the rigid separation of the sexes, as in all traditional Muslim communities. Men are engaged in matters outside the house such as farming, fishing, etc. Women are usually responsible for the household duties, while the man is the head of the family. While they are in public, respect should be shown to him by the wife and children. Usually the final decisions concerning the family are made by the husband. In rural areas, arranged marriage is still widely practiced.

Polygamy is accepted by the Makassar people, but, since a separate house must be provided for each wife, it is only practiced among the wealthy people.

Siri (respect and honor) is the social code by which the Makassar live. Anyone seriously offending another person's siri carries the risk of being killed, in which case authorities often refuse to intervene. The Makassar often help their neighbors in matters such as working in the rice fields and building houses.[15]

Language

[edit]

Makassarese language

[edit]
Main article: Makassarese language

The Makassarese language, also referred to as Basa Mangkasara (ISO code: mak), is the language spoken by the Makassar people. This language is classified as part of Makassaric branch of the South Sulawesi subgroup which in turn is part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family.[16]

Makassar Malay language

[edit]
Main article: Makassar Malay

Commonly known as "Logat Makassar" (Makassar Dialect; ISO code: mfp) is a creole of Malay. This language is used as the language of commerce in the port of Makassar, South Sulawesi. The number of speakers is reached 1.889 million inhabitants in 2000 and an estimated number of speakers of these languages continue to grow until it reaches ± 3.5 million inhabitants. The language is mostly used by Immigrants from outside the city of Makassar, Makassar City Population, Youth Makassar, or people who are not proficient in Makassarese. This language is spoken along the South Peninsula region of Sulawesi.[17]

Religion

[edit]
A Makassar mosque in the colonial period, 1930s

Around 16th century South Sulawesi was a center for trade of the region with Malay Muslim traders as well as Portuguese traders frequently visited the area. Native rulers were generally uncommitted to either Muslim or Christian religions and allowed both to maintain presence. Around 1537 Padre Manuel d’la Costa visited Gowa court, along with Portuguese representatives from Ternate. From Portuguese records some Gowan aristocracy decided to convert to Christianity.

According to Antonio de Payva, Portuguese trader and missionary from Malaccas, that had some success converting some Bugis kings from Ajatappareng, when a Portuguese missionary tried to convert 14th Gowa king, I Mangngarangi Daeng Manrabbia, he was reluctant to change his ancestral faith and will invite Malay priests to compare both religions first. Around 1593, He decided to embrace Islam and adopt the title of Sultan Aluddin. He then set Islam as the official religion of Gowa. Payva noted that Malay traders and priests are generally more accepted and trusted compared to Portuguese. Gowa had maintained relationship with traders from Java, Sumatra, Pattani, Pahang, Champa, and Johor ever since 9th Gowa king, Tumapaʼrisiʼ Kallonna. According to the text Gowa chronicle, under the rule of 11th Gowa king, Tunipalangga, these traders were allowed to practice Islam and had special privileges. These communities requested Sultan Muda Alauddin Riayat Shah of Aceh to provide ulama for South Sulawesi, as he is known for sending ulama outside of Aceh.[18]

Three Minangkabau ulama, Dato Ri Bandang, Dato Ri Tiro, and Dato Ri Patimang were sent to spread Islam in South Sulawesi. They visited Riau and Johor to learn about South Sulawesi culture from Bugis-Makassar sailors there. Facilitated by Sultan of Johor, they learned from Wali Songo of Java before eventually arriving in Somba Opu harbour in early 17th century.[19] There are similarities of Islam with native practice of Dewata Sewwae in Luwu Kingdom, which was considered the spiritual center in South Sulawesi. Hence, when the rulers of Luwu converted first, they pushed for conversion in Gowa-Tallo, since they had the power and authority for pushing conversion in South Sulawesi which Luwu lacked. Conversion began slowly and peacefully and adapted with native Ammatoa practitioners centered in Bulukumba.[18]

By 1611, most of the Makasar and Bugis kingdoms had converted.[20] Presently, the Makassar are almost all Muslim, but some traditional pre-Islamic beliefs are still influential, especially in the remote areas.

Literature

[edit]

Makassar literature encompasses a diverse range of genres, shaped by both written and oral traditions.[21][22][23] Historically, written works, preserved in Lontaraʼ manuscripts, primarily focused on chronicles (patturioloang), legal expositions (rapang and parakara), religious texts, and diaries (lontaraʼ bilang). Meanwhile, the oral tradition thrived, transmitting epic chanted tales (sinriliʼ), poems (kelong), and folk tales (rupama or pau-pau) across generations.

Interestingly, certain genres prevalent in neighboring Bugis culture, such as the expansive creation epic I La Galigo and the poetic toloʼ, are notably absent in Makassar. This suggests a distinct cultural emphasis, with pre-modern Makassar writing primarily serving practical, historical, and religious purposes rather than artistic expression. Exceptions to this include a few translations of legendary or religious texts from Malay or Islamic traditions[24].

The arrival of the colonial era marked a turning point, opening doors for Makassar writers to explore new literary forms and commit their myths and stories to written form.[24]

Writing traditions

[edit]
Patturioloang Gowa or Gowa Chronicle written in the Makassarese language using Old Makassar script.

The term lontaraʼ refers to handwritten manuscripts, typically in Makassar script. These manuscripts, ranging from single sheets to bound codices, often contain a diverse collection of texts, including historical chronicles, legal treatises, religious texts, and even personal accounts. They vary in length from single sheets to hundreds of pages in bound codices, and may contain a fragment of a large work, or a collection of entire texts, or something in between. For example, the lontaraʼ believed to be the oldest has 154 surviving pages and contains versions of the Chronicles of Gowa, Talloʼ, Sanrabone, Bangkalaʼ, Maros, and Cenrana, and from then a variety of different types of text, including treaties, tellings of particular events or reigns of karaeng (king), rapang, Islamic texts including the story of Noong (Noah), and so forth.[24]

Lontaraʼ hold a special place in Makassar cultures, often considered sacred and imbued with mystical powers, and in Makassar they are included in the larger category of kalompoang (regalia, lit. ʻgreatnessʼ). Some are even believed to be so potent that they must not be read by unauthorized individuals, or even at all. This reverence can sometimes lead to the loss of knowledge, as the contents of carefully preserved lontaraʼ may be forgotten over time. Despite their cultural significance, many lontaraʼ have been acquired by institutional collections or made accessible for copying or photographing, allowing for wider study and preservation of their valuable contents.[24]

Oral traditions

[edit]
Makassar version of Hikayat Amir Hamzah written in Lontara script.

Makassar has a rich tradition of oral literature, including various forms such as Aru, Doangang, Dondo, Kelong, Pakkio' Bunting, Paruntu' Kana, Pasang, Pau-Pau, Royong, Rupama, and Sinrili'. Here is the definition:

  • Aru is a form of poetry in Makassar literature, serves as an oath, solemn pledge or declaration of loyalty, historically recited by the people of Gowa. This oath, often expressed by subordinates to their superiors be it servants to their king, soldiers to their commander, or even the king to his people - signifies a commitment to fulfill the words spoken within the aru, whether in times of peace or war.
  • Doangang, akin to incantations or mantras, is a form of Makassar poetry with a flexible structure, ranging from five to over ten lines. While rhyme is not emphasized, doangang employs specific words and rhythms. Often recited before embarking on a journey or new endeavor, its content varies, encompassing protection from illness or evil spirits, enhancing beauty, or even attracting good fortune in business. Some doangang are written, others passed down orally, with some even composed in archaic Makassar people, believed to enhance their potency. The arrangement of words and rhythm is crucial, prioritizing power over aesthetic appeal. Deviation from the established form diminishes the effectiveness of the doangang.
  • Dondo is a form of Makassar poetry, akin to nursery rhymes, specifically designed for children. It is often referred to as a children's song because adults or parents frequently sing it to entertain and soothe young children.
  • Kelong are a genre of short poems in Makassar literature, often compared to Malay pantun. Kelong are typically rooted in comparisons to the natural world. Kelong, a form of Makassar poetry, often draws inspiration from the natural world[24]. One type of kelong, known as kelong silaʼ-silaʼ, uses satire to provide sharp commentary on current events. Kelong serves as a means for the people to express their emotions, engage in playful banter, and facilitate interactions between young men and women, all within the boundaries of propriety (siriʼ). A typical Makassar kelong consists of four lines, with each line containing 8, 8, 5, and 8 syllables, respectively.[25]
  • Pakkioʼ Bunting is a genre of Makassar poetry, characterized by its lyrical and dialogic nature. This poetic form is traditionally performed during wedding ceremonies, specifically at the pivotal moment when the groom enters the bride's home, or the bride enters the groom's home. The verses exchanged during pakkioʼ bunting often express sentiments of love, joy, and well-wishes for the newlyweds, marking the beginning of their shared journey together. This tradition serves as a beautiful and meaningful way to celebrate the union of two families and welcome the couple into their new life.
  • Paruntuʼ Kana or parable is a type of Makassar poetry. It is similar to a proverb or aphorism and conveys advice, satire, or praise.[26][27] Nowadays, Paruntuk Kana is virtually forgotten by Makassarese people as a part of their culture. In the past, it was used to show the respectful or reminder about bad behavior.[27]
  • Pasang is one of the Makassar literature types. It is the mean will of the old people about clues that can used as rule in social life.[28] especially about language and culture in Makassar such as religion, morality education, social life, economic etc.[28] One of it samples is morality education. It is about honesty that everyone has to own it.[28]
  • Pau-Pau is a form of Makassar prose literature, serves as a mirror reflecting the realities of society, much like the Indonesian hikayat (tales). These tales encompass a wide range of genres, from traditional folklore and epic sagas to historical accounts and personal stories. While primarily fictional, pau-pau and hikayat hold significant cultural value, offering entertainment, moral lessons, and inspiration to readers. They serve as a creative outlet for authors to express their ideas, explore the complexities of human existence, and contribute to the rich tapestry of Makassar literary tradition. One of the famous tales in Makassar is Hikayat Jaya Langkara and Hikayat Amir Hamzah which was translated from Malay.
  • Royong is a traditional lullaby sung to infants in Makassar, typically around forty days old. The opening sounds of royong, such as paʼjappa daeng or turinaung, cui, and kurru-kurru jangang, convey the idea that humanity constantly looks upward or aspires to higher ideals. These lullabies are usually performed by elderly women, particularly during significant events like circumcision ceremonies (passunnakkang), weddings (paʼbuntingang), or the celebration of a child's birth (pattompalang or angngalle areng). During adaʼ (customary) celebrations, royong is often accompanied by traditional musical instruments like anaʼ baccing (iron bars), kancing (copper plates), curiga (chains), gong, ganrang (drum), puiʼ-puiʼ, and dengkáng, among others.
  • Rupama is a kind of folk tales, often recognized as similar or identical to stories from other Indonesian cultures, for example stories containing the pulandoʼ (mousedeer), pung kura-kura na pung dareʼ-dareʼ (turtle and monkey).[24]
  • Sinriliʼ are traditional Makassar oral epics, originally chanted by professional performers (pasinriliʼ) accompanied by a two-stringed spike fiddle (kesoʼ-kesoʼ).[29] Though once a purely oral tradition, sinriliʼ were first written down in the 19th century and some have since been published, including notable works like Datuʼ Museng and I Maʼdiʼ. Another notable published sinriliʼ is Sinriliʼna Kappalaʼ Tallumbatua[30], which tells a fictionalized account of the Bugis prince Arung Palakka (called Andi Patunru in the sinriliʼ) and his alliance with the Dutch that led to the defeat of the Gowa Sultanate.[29][24]

Culture

[edit]

Philosophy

[edit]

Culture Siri 'Na Pacce is one cultural philosophy of Bugis-Makassar society.

Traditional attire

[edit]
Makassar woman in traditional clothes (baju bodo)

Baju bodo (lit. 'short blouse' in Makassarese) is a traditional upper garment of Makassarese women. The baju bodo has a rectangular shape, and is usually short-sleeved, i.e. half above the elbow.

According to Makassar custom, the color of the baju bodo indicates the age or the dignity of the wearer. It is often used for ceremonies such as wedding ceremonies. But now, baju bodo is revitalized through other events such as dance competitions or guest welcome receptions.[31]

Cuisine

[edit]
Coto Makassar with ketupat on the side
Pallubasa
Main article: Makassar cuisine

Makassar cuisine uses a blend of agrarian and maritime ingredients. On west coast cities such as Makassar, Maros, and Pangkep, there are coastal areas directly adjacent to rice fields. Agricultural areas are quite extensive in the Maros and Pangkep regions. Rice and other crops such as bananas are abundant. Most dishes—mainly traditional kues and desserts—are predominantly made from rice and bananas.

Coastal areas of South Sulawesi are important producers of fish, with ponds on the west coast filled with bolu (milkfish), sunu (grouper), shrimps, and crabs. The tradition of fishing in coastal and high seas areas is also well-developed. Among others, tunas are most commonly caught.

The "agrarian pattern" is found in Makassarese dishes which are made from beef or buffalo. Prime examples are coto, konro, sop saudara, and pallubasa.[32]

People who live in coastal cities high in maritime resources predominantly eat fish.


Differences between the Buginese and Makassar people

[edit]

There is a common misperception that the Makassar people are identical and ethnically cognate to the Buginese people, and that the term Buginese and Makassar are terms that are coined by the Dutch colonials to create a division among them. All potentials were lost once the Sultanate of Makassar fell to the Dutch colonial, since these people were notoriously rebellious against the Dutch colonials.[33] Wherever these people encounter the Dutch colonials, conflicts are bound to happen. Several notable figures centered in Gowa Regency that refused to surrender like Karaeng Galesong, migrated to Central Java. Along with his powerful naval fleet, they would engage in war against any Dutch vassals that they would encounter. Hence, the Dutch colonials at that time under Cornelis Speelman calls him the Si-Bajak-Laut, meaning "the pirate".[34]

In linguistic terms, Makassarese and Buginese are distinct languages, even though both of these languages belong to the South Sulawesi group[35] within the Malayo-Polynesian languages branch of the Austronesian languages. In this category, the Makassarese language is in the same sub-category as Bentong, Coastal and Highland Konjo and Selayar;[36] while Buginese is under the same sub-category as Campalagian language and along with another 2 languages spoken in Kalimantan, Embaloh and Taman.[37] This differences between the Bugis and Makassar people are one of the characteristics that differentiate the two people group.

The idea that the Buginese and Makassar people are ethnically cognate derives from the conquest of kingdoms such as Bone state and Wajo Kingdom by the Sultanate of Gowa.

See also

[edit]

References

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  1. ^ Na'im, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry (2010). "Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia (BPS). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
  2. ^ Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010. Badan Pusat Statistik. 2011. ISBN 9789790644175. Archived from the original on 2017-07-10.
  3. ^ "Sejarah Kerajaan Makassar yang Jadi Musuh Besar VOC di Abad ke-17". Voi - Waktunya Merevolusi Pemberitaan.
  4. ^ "Syekh Yusuf, Ulama Makassar yang Jadi Pahlawan di Afrika Selatan". 8 March 2017.
  5. ^ MacKnight,C.C. (1976).The Voyage to Marege': Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0-522-84088-4
  6. ^ Ganter,R.(2008) Journal of Australian Studies, Volume 32,4, 2008: "Muslim Australians: the deep histories of contact.""Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2013-01-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Retrieved on 6 April 2012
  7. ^ Hidalgo Tan, N.(2010) SEAArch. South East Asian Archaeology blog:[1] Retrieved on 6 April 2012
  8. ^ Janak Rogers (24 June 2014). "When Islam came to Australia". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
  9. ^ Macknight, C.C. (1976), p.29
  10. ^ Stephenson, P.(2010)Islam Dreaming: Indigenous Muslims in Australia. P.22-6. University of New South Wales Press,Sydney. ISBN 978-1-74223-247-8
  11. ^ a b Ganter, R. (2005) "Turn the Map upside down" in Griffith Review Edition 9, 2005. "Up North: Myths, Threats and Enchantment." Griffith University.
  12. ^ Russell, D. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2004, Number 1. "Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims." P.6-7. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Retrieved on 6 April 2012
  13. ^ Macknight, C. C., 'Using Daeng Rangka (1845–1927)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, [2] Retrieved on 6 April 2012
  14. ^ MacKnight, CC (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0-522-84088-4.
  15. ^ Tim. "Cultural Value, Siri' Na Pacce, Bugis-Makassar Community" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-02-18.
  16. ^ Tabain, Marija and Jukes, Anthony (2016). "Makasar". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 46 (1): 111–99. doi:10.1017/S002510031500033X{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), with supplementary sound recordings.
  17. ^ Wurm, Stephen A.; Mühlhäusler, Peter; Darrell T., Tryon, eds. (1996). Atlas of languages of intercultural communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas. p. 682.
  18. ^ a b Mukhaer, Afkar Aristoteles (2021-11-18). "Proses Kristenisasi dan Islamisasi Sulawesi Selatan yang Beriringan". National Geographic Indonesia (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-11-22.
  19. ^ Naim, Mochtar. Merantau.
  20. ^ Gibson, T. (2007). Islamic Narrative and Authority in Southeast Asia: From the 16th to the 21st Century. Springer. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-230-60508-4.
  21. ^ Cummings, William (2002). Making Blood White: Historical Transformations in Early Modern Makassar. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2513-3.
  22. ^ Cummings, William (2003). "Rethinking the Imbrication of Orality and Literacy: Historical Discourse in Early Modern Makassar". The Journal of Asian Studies. 62 (2): 531–551. doi:10.2307/3096248. ISSN 0021-9118.
  23. ^ Noorduyn, J. (1991). A Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Sulawesi. KITLV Press. ISBN 978-90-6718-028-3.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g Jukes, Anthony (2006). Makassarese (basa Mangkasara'): A Description of an Austronesian Language of South Sulawesi. University of Melbourne, Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics.
  25. ^ Mattulada (1974). Bugis-Makassar: manusia dan kebudayaannaya (in Indonesian).
  26. ^ Jahrir, A.S. (2020). "Character Education of Makassar Culture as a Local Wisdom To Streng Then Indonesian Diversity In Schools" (PDF). Multicultural Education. 6(1): 160–165. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3945037.
  27. ^ a b "Mengenal Paruntuk Kana dalam Sastra Makassar". Kompasiana. 2011-05-01. Retrieved 2014-06-23.
  28. ^ a b c "Firman Sastra Makassar". Scribd.com. Retrieved 2014-06-23.
  29. ^ a b Sutton, R. Anderson (2002-09-05). Calling Back the Spirit: Music, Dance, and Cultural Politics in Lowland South Sulawesi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535465-2.
  30. ^ Arief, Aburaerah; Hakim, Zainuddin (1993). Sinrilikna Kappalak Tallumbatua: Sastra Lisan Makasar (in Indonesian). Yayasan Obor Indonesia. ISBN 979-461-155-7.
  31. ^ Tim Indonesia Exploride. "Baju Bodo". IndonesiaKaya (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-02-18.
  32. ^ Tim Indonesia Exploride. "Local Food In Makassar". tasteatlas (in Indonesian).
  33. ^ Carl Fredrik Feddersen (2017). Principled Pragmatism: VOC Interaction with Makassar 1637-68, and the Nature of Company Diplomacy. Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISBN 978-82-02-56660-9. Retrieved 2018-06-23.
  34. ^ Adnan M. (2014). "Pertimbangan Hakim dalam menjatuhkan putusan perkara Pidana terhadap pelaku kekerasan massal (Tawuran) antara Mahasiswa Dikota Makasar" (PDF). Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta. Retrieved 2018-06-23.
  35. ^ "South Sulawesi". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-06-23.
  36. ^ "Makasar". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-06-23.
  37. ^ "Bugis". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-06-23.
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