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Madoc

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"Welsh Indian" redirects here. For Welsh people of Indian-descent, see Asian Welsh people.
For other uses, see Madoc (disambiguation).

Madog. Book illustration by A.S. Boyd, 1909.
Aber-kerrik-gwynan, modern day Llandrillo-yn-Rhos, Colwyn Bay, on the north coast of Wales where the myth claims Madog set sail for Alabama, USA.

Madoc ab Owain Gwynedd (also spelled Madog) was, according to folklore, a Welsh prince who sailed to the Americas in 1170, over three hundred years before Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492.

According to the story, he was a son of Owain Gwynedd, and took to the sea to flee internecine violence at home. The "Madoc story" legend evidently evolved out of a medieval tradition about a Welsh hero's sea voyage, to which only allusions survive. However, it attained its greatest prominence during the Elizabethan era, when English and Welsh writers wrote of the claim that Madoc had come to the Americas as an assertion of prior discovery, and hence legal possession, of North America by the Kingdom of England.[1][2]

The Madoc story remained popular in later centuries, and a later development asserted that Madoc's voyagers had intermarried with local Native Americans, and that their Welsh-speaking descendants still live somewhere in the United States. These "Welsh Indians" were credited with the construction of a number of landmarks throughout the Midwestern United States, and a number of white travelers were inspired to go looking for them. The Madoc story has been the subject of much fantasy in the context of possible pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. No archaeological, linguistic, or other evidence of such a man or his voyages has been found in the New or Old World; however, legends connect him with certain sites, such as Devil's Backbone, located on the Ohio River at Fourteen Mile Creek near Louisville, Kentucky.[3]

Family background

A map of c. 1577 depicting Conwy, Penrhyn, and Llandrighlo (Rhos-on-Sea)

Madoc was born in Dolwyddelan Castle, North Wales during the 12th century. He was an illegitimate child, his purported father, Owain Gwynedd (c. 1100 – c. 1170), was the King of the Kingdom of Gwynedd during the 12th century, although there was no person in contemporary works listing a son of Gwynedd's of that name. Gwynedd's reign was fraught with battles with other Welsh princes and with Henry II of England. At his death in 1170, a bloody dispute broke out between his heir, Hywel the Poet-Prince, and Owain's younger sons, Maelgwn, Rhodri, and led by Dafydd, two the children of the Princess-Dowager Cristen ferch Gronwy and one the child of Gwladus ferch Llywarch. Owain had at least 19 children from his two wives and several more children born out of wedlock but legally acknowledged under Welsh tradition.[4][5][6] Madog was appointed the Admiral of the fleet of ships by his Dad, the king, with Gwynedd's Navy withstanding an invasion by Stephen, King of England at Abermenai in 1142. During his spell as a naval commander, his work took him to France, Spain, Venice and other Mediterranean ports. Then after the reign of Owain Gwynedd, the heir and successor as the king was Madoc's brother, King Dafydd, he imprisoned all of his brothers, the Princes of Gwynedd except for Madoc himself and Maelgwn ab Owain Gwynedd, who was given the Isle of Anglesey as his lordship.[7][8][A] The poet Llywarch ap Llywelyn of the 12th and 13th centuries did mention someone of this name as someone who fought in the Conwy, North Wales, during the time of Madoc's nephew, Llywelyn ap Iorwerth in the early 12th century.[4]

The Welsh folklore about Prince Madoc is that he supposedly left his homeland in Wales (Kingdom of Gwynedd) after the death of his father, the King Owain Gwynedd, and sailed for nearby Ireland across the Irish Sea from North Wales, and then into the North Atlantic to then settle what would become New Spain.[4] Madoc and his brother (Rhirid or Rhiryd) were among the Welsh Britons who rediscovered the Americas, but in the 12th century. Madoc's supposed voyages were after the 10th century Viking expansion of the Northern Atlantic, and before the voyages of Christopher Columbus and European discovery of the Americas from 1492.[5] The veracity of story involving the Welsh discovery of America is debated by modern scholars, as no contemporary record attests to the voyages.[4]

Voyages story

The sources recorded centuries after his death stated that Madog and his companions purportedly crossed the Atlantic, and they had discovered a distant and abundant land in 1170. Madog had left North Wales and specifically, Rhos-on-Sea (Aber-Kerrik-Gwynan) on the ships named Gorn Gwynant and Pedr Sant,[9][5] with about 5 or 6 sailing ships in total, when they landed in the Southern United States near Florida in Mobile Bay (Gulf of Mexico). There, a group of 120 men disembarked to form a colony in America, whilst Madog had left the Britons and returned to the British Isles by crossing the ocean again by following the Polar star at night for directions. Upon returning to Wales, Madoc pleaded with his fellow Welsh countrymen not to fight the English, or kill one another and set sail with him once again, of which, some did, when eleven ships sailed the following year in 1171.[7][B][C] For the second voyage, Madoc set sail from Lundy Island south of Wales, returning to America for his third Trans-Atlantic crossing.[5]

Another interpretation was that, after gathering eleven ships and 120 men, women and children, the prince and his recruiters sailed west a second time to "that Westerne countrie" and ported in Mexico.[11][D] Whilst The Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales mentioned 10 ships with 300 men leaving Wales to travel to seas.[4] Some sources state that Prince Madoc never returned from America, whilst traditionally he was known to have returned to Wales and was buried in what it today the town Porthmadog in Traeth Mawr, Gwynedd.[12][13]

Historical connection

The story of Madoc's voyages is connected to and closely resembles that of Gavran (Gafran), and also the 5th-century story of Myrddin emrys (Merlin) who set sail on a voyage from the British Isles and disappeared to the New World.[14][4][15]

Mediaeval romance

The earliest certain reference to a seafaring Madoc or Madog appears in a Template:Lang-cy by the Welsh poet Maredudd ap Rhys (fl. 1450–1483) of Powys, which mentions a Madog who is a descendant of Owain Gwynedd and who voyaged to the sea. The poem is addressed to a local squire, thanking him for a fishing net on a patron's behalf. Madog is referred to as "Splendid Madog ... / Of Owain Gwynedd's line, / He desired not land ... / Or worldly wealth but the sea."

A Flemish writer called Willem, in around 1250 to 1255,[16] identifies himself in his poem Van den Vos Reinaerde as "Willem die Madoc maecte" (Willem, the author of Madoc, known as "Willem the Minstrel"[E]). Though no copies of Willem's "Madoc" survive, Gwyn Williams tells us that "In the seventeenth century a fragment of a reputed copy of the work is said to have been found in Poitiers". It provides no topographical details relating to North America, but says that Madoc (not related to Owain in the fragment) discovered an island paradise, where he intended "to launch a new kingdom of love and music".[18][19] There are also claims that the Welsh poet and genealogist Gutun Owain wrote about Madoc before 1492. Gwyn Williams in Madoc, the Making of a Myth, makes it clear that Madoc is not mentioned in any of Gutun Owain's surviving manuscripts.[20]

Elizabethan and Stuart claims to the New World

The Madoc legend attained its greatest prominence during the Elizabethan era, when Welsh and English writers used it to bolster British claims in the New World versus those of Spain. The earliest surviving full account of Madoc's voyage, the first to make the claim that Madoc had come to America before Columbus,[F] appears in Humphrey Llwyd's Cronica Walliae (published in 1559),[21] an English adaptation of the Brut y Tywysogion.[22][G]

John Dee used Llwyd's manuscript when he submitted the treatise "Title Royal" to Queen Elizabeth in 1580, which stated that "The Lord Madoc, sonne to Owen Gwynned, Prince of Gwynedd, led a Colonie and inhabited in Terra Florida or thereabouts" in 1170.[1] The story was first published by George Peckham's as A True Report of the late Discoveries of the Newfound Landes (1583), and like Dee it was used to support English claims to the Americas.[24] It was picked up in David Powel's Historie of Cambria (1584),[24][H] and Richard Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589). Dee went so far as to assert that Brutus of Troy and King Arthur as well as Madoc had conquered lands in the Americas and therefore their heir Elizabeth I of England had a priority claim there.[26][27]

The 1584 Historie of Cambria by David Powel says that Madoc was disheartened by this family fighting, and that he and Rhirid set sail from Llandrillo (Rhos-on-Sea) in the cantref of Rhos to explore the western ocean.[I] They purportedly discovered a distant and abundant land in 1170 where about one hundred men, women and children disembarked to form a colony. According to Humphrey Llwyd's 1559 Cronica Walliae and in many other copied sources, Madoc and some others returned to Wales to recruit additional settlers.[28]

John Smith, historian of Virginia, wrote in 1624 of the Chronicles of Wales reports Madoc went to the New World in 1170 A.D. (over 300 years before Columbus) with some men and women. Smith says the Chronicles say Madoc then went back to Wales to get more people and made a second trip back to the New World.[29][30] In the later 1600s Thomas Herbert popularised the stories told by Dee and Powel, adding more detail from sources unknown, suggesting that Madoc may have landed in Canada, Florida, or even Mexico, and reporting that Mexican sources stated that they used currachs.[31]

"Welsh Indians"

As immigrants came into contact with more Native American groups, more of the latter were claimed to be "Welsh Indians". On 26 November 1608, Peter Wynne, a member of Captain Christopher Newport's exploration party to the villages of the Monacan people, Virginia Siouan speakers above the falls of the James River in Virginia, wrote a letter to John Egerton, informing him that some members of Newport's party believed the pronunciation of the Monacans' language resembled "Welch", which Wynne spoke, and asked Wynne to act as interpreter. The Monacan were among those non-Algonquian tribes collectively referred to by the Algonquians as "Mandoag".[32]

The Reverend Morgan Jones told Thomas Lloyd, William Penn's deputy, that he had been captured in 1669 in North Carolina by members of a tribe identified as the Doeg, who were said to be a part of the Tuscarora. (However, there is no evidence that the Doeg proper were part of the Tuscarora.[33]) According to Jones, the chief spared his life when he heard Jones speak Welsh, a tongue he understood. Jones' report says that he then lived with the Doeg for several months preaching the Gospel in Welsh and then returned to the British Colonies where he recorded his adventure in 1686. Jones's tract was printed by The Gentleman's Magazine, launching a slew of publications on the subject.[34] The historian Gwyn A. Williams comments, "This is a complete farrago and may have been intended as a hoax".[35]

Thomas Jefferson had heard of Welsh-speaking Indian tribes. In a letter written to Meriwether Lewis by Jefferson on 22 January 1804, he speaks of searching for the Welsh Indians "said to be up the Missouri".[36][37] The historian Stephen E. Ambrose writes in his history book Undaunted Courage that Thomas Jefferson believed the "Madoc story" to be true and instructed the Lewis and Clark Expedition to find the descendants of the Madoc Welsh Indians. They did not find any, nor did John Evans.[38] [39][40]

In 1810, John Sevier, the first governor of Tennessee, wrote to his friend Major Amos Stoddard about a conversation he had in 1782 with the old Cherokee chief Oconostota concerning ancient fortifications built along the Alabama River. The chief allegedly told him that the forts were built by a white people called "Welsh", as protection against the ancestors of the Cherokee, who eventually drove them from the region.[41] Sevier had also written in 1799 of the alleged discovery of six skeletons in brass armour bearing the Welsh coat-of-arms.[42] He claims that Madoc and the Welsh were first in Alabama.[43]

In 1824, Thomas S. Hinde wrote a letter to John S. Williams, editor of The American Pioneer, regarding the Madoc Tradition. In the letter, Hinde claimed to have gathered testimony from numerous sources that stated Welsh people under Owen Ap Zuinch had come to America in the twelfth century, over three hundred years before Christopher Columbus. Hinde claimed that in 1799, six soldiers had been dug up near Jeffersonville, Indiana, on the Ohio River with breastplates that contained Welsh coats-of-arms.[44]

George Catlin thought the Mandan bull boat to be similar to the Welsh coracle.

In all, at least thirteen real tribes, five unidentified tribes, and three unnamed tribes have been suggested as "Welsh Indians".[45] Eventually, the legend settled on identifying the Welsh Indians with the Mandan people, who were said to differ from their neighbours in culture, language, and appearance. The painter George Catlin suggested the Mandans were descendants of Madoc and his fellow voyagers in North American Indians (1841); he found the round Mandan Bull Boat similar to the Welsh coracle, and he thought the advanced architecture of Mandan villages must have been learned from Europeans (advanced North American societies such as the Mississippian and Hopewell traditions were not well known in Catlin's time). Supporters of this claim have drawn links between Madoc and the Mandan mythological figure "Lone Man", who, according to one tale, protected some villagers from a flooding river with a wooden corral.[46]

The Welsh Indian legend was revived in the 1840s and 1850s; this time the Zunis, Hopis, and Navajo were claimed to be of Welsh descent by George Ruxton (Hopis, 1846), P. G. S. Ten Broeck (Zunis, 1854), and Abbé Emmanuel Domenach (Zunis, 1860), among others.[47]

Brigham Young became interested in the supposed Hopi-Welsh connection: in 1858 Young sent a Welshman with Jacob Hamblin to the Hopi mesas to check for Welsh-speakers there. None were found, but in 1863 Hamblin brought three Hopi men to Salt Lake City, where they were "besieged by Welshmen wanting them to utter Celtic words", to no avail.[47]

Llewelyn Harris, a Welsh-American Mormon missionary who visited the Zuni in 1878, wrote that they had many Welsh words in their language, and that they claimed their descent from the "Cambaraga"—white men who had come by sea 300 years before the Spanish. However, Harris's claims have never been independently verified.[48] Several attempts to confirm Madoc's historicity have been made, but historians of early America, notably Samuel Eliot Morison, regard the story as a myth.[49]

Poetic writings

Madoc's legend has been a notable subject for poets, however. The most famous account in English is Robert Southey's long 1805 poem Madoc, which uses the story to explore the poet's freethinking and egalitarian ideals.[50]

Southey wrote Madoc to help finance a trip of his own to America,[51] where he and Samuel Taylor Coleridge hoped to establish a Utopian state they called a "Pantisocracy". Southey's poem in turn inspired the twentieth-century poet Paul Muldoon to write Madoc: A Mystery, which won the Geoffrey Faber Memorial Prize in 1992.[52][53] It explores what might have happened if Southey and Coleridge had succeeded in coming to America to found their "ideal state".[54] In Russian, the noted poet Alexander S. Pushkin composed a short poem "Madoc in Wales" (Медок в Уаллах, 1829) on the topic.[55]

Fort Mountain State Park: Legends at Fort Mountain – Prince Madoc of Wales
Plaque at Fort Morgan showing where the Daughters of the American Revolution supposed that Madoc had landed in 1170 A.D.

Modern developments of the legend

Madoc's landing place has also been suggested to be "Mobile, Alabama; Florida; Newfoundland; Newport, Rhode Island; Yarmouth, Nova Scotia; Virginia; points in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean including the mouth of the Mississippi River; the Yucatan; the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Panama; the Caribbean coast of South America; various islands in the West Indies and the Bahamas along with Bermuda; and the mouth of the Amazon River".[56] They are reported to be the founders of various civilisations such as the Aztec, the Maya and the Inca.[56]

American settlement

The tradition of Madoc's purported voyage was he left Wales in 1170 to land in Mobile Bay in Alabama, USA and then travelled up the Coosa River which connections several southern counties of Alabama, Tennessee and Georgia. A legend passed down through generations of American Indians was of 'yellow-haired giants' who had briefly settled in Tennessee, then moved to Kentucky and then Southern Indiana, also involving the area of Southern Ohio, all of which became known as "The Dark and Forbidden Land", specifically the area of "Devil's Backbone" on the Ohio River. The story was passed on from the native American Chief Tobacco of the Piankeshaw tribe to George Rogers Clark who settled the city Clarksville, Indiana around the 1800s. The Chief spoke of a great battle between White and Red Indians, where the White Indians were slain. Supposedly, a graveyard of thousands of skeletons was found by Maj. John Harrison, but later washed away in a flood. Clark and the early settlers of his county had found European armor-clad skeletons thought to be ancient Welshmen, as well as ancient coins. According to local Cherokee tradition, the medieval settlers intermarried with the natives in Chattanooga, Tennessee and built stone forts there. It was said the modern 19th century settlers found Natives throughout the area who could converse in the Welsh language.[8][57][58]

Origin myths of natural, man-made, and imaginary features

Madoc's proponents believe earthen fort mounds at Devil's Backbone along the Ohio River to be the work of Welsh colonists.

Folk tradition has long claimed that a site called "Devil's Backbone" at Rose Island, about fourteen miles upstream from Louisville, Kentucky, was once home to a colony of Welsh-speaking Indians. The eighteenth-century Missouri River explorer John Evans of Waunfawr in Wales took up his journey in part to find the Welsh-descended "Padoucas" or "Madogwys" tribes.[59]

In northwest Georgia, legends of the Welsh have become part of the myth surrounding the unknown origin of a mysterious rock formation on Fort Mountain. Historian, Gwyn A. Williams, author of Madoc: The Making of a Myth, suggests that Cherokee tradition concerning that ruin may have been influenced by contemporary European-American legends of the "Welsh Indians".[60] A newspaper writer in Georgia, Walter Putnam, mentioned the Madoc legend in 2008.[61] The story of Welsh explorers is one of several legends surrounding that site.

In northeastern Alabama, there is a story that the "Welsh Caves" in DeSoto State Park were built by Madoc's party, since local native tribes were not known to have ever practised such stonework or excavation as was found on the site.[62]

Legacy

The township of Madoc, Ontario, and the nearby village of Madoc are both named in the prince's memory, as are several local guest houses and pubs throughout North America and the United Kingdom. The Welsh town of Porthmadog (meaning "Madoc's Port" in English) and the village of Tremadog ("Madoc's Town") in the county of Gwynedd are actually named after the industrialist and Member of Parliament William Alexander Madocks, their principal developer, and additionally influenced by the legendary son of Owain Gwynedd, Madoc ab Owain Gwynedd.[63]

The Prince Madog, a research vessel owned by the Bangor University and P&O Maritime, entered service in 2001,[64][65] replacing an earlier research vessel of the same name that first entered service in 1968.[66]

Madoc, Ontario, Canada.

A plaque at Fort Mountain State Park in Georgia recounts a nineteenth-century interpretation of the ancient stone wall that gives the site its name. The plaque repeats the statement of Tennessee governor John Sevier that the Cherokees believed "a people called Welsh" had built a fort on the mountain long ago to repel Indian attacks.[67] The plaque has been changed, leaving no reference to Madoc or the Welsh.[68]

In 1953, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) erected a plaque at Fort Morgan on the shores of Mobile Bay, Alabama, reading:

In memory of Prince Madoc a Welsh explorer who landed on the shores of Mobile Bay in 1170 and left behind with the Indians the Welsh language.[47][69]

The plaque was removed by the Alabama Parks Service, either because of a hurricane[70] or because the site focuses on the period from 1800 to 1945,[71] and put in storage. It is now on display at the DAR headquarters in Mobile, Alabama.[72]

In literature

Fictional books

Fictions books involving the legend of Madog ap Owain Gwynedd:

Poetry

  • Muldoon, Paul (1990). Madoc: A Mystery. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-14488-8.
  • Southey, Robert (1805). Madoc. Edinburgh: Longman.

Juvenile

Notes

  1. ^ Owain Gwynedd is widely considered one of the greatest Welsh rulers of the Middle Ages
  2. ^ "And after he had returned home and declared the pleasant and frutefull countreys that he had seene without inhabitants, and upon the contrarye parte what barreyne and wilde grounde his bretherne and nevewes did murther one an other for, he prepared a number of shippes, and gote with suche men and women as were diserouse to lyve in quietness. And takinge his leave of his frends, toke his journey thytherwarde againe wherefore his is to be presupposed that he and his people enhabited parte of those countreys."[10]
  3. ^ According to Humphrey Llwyd's 1559 Cronica Walliae and in many other copied sources, Madoc and some others returned to Wales to recruit additional settlers.
  4. ^ A fact that too was cited by Reuben T. Durrett in his work Traditions of the earliest visits of foreigners to north America.
  5. ^ "The earliest existing fragments of the epic of 'Reynard the Fox' were written in Latin by Flemish priests, and about 1250 a very important version in Dutch was made by Willem the Minstrel, of whom it is unfortunate that we know no more, save that he was the translator of a lost romance, 'Madoc'."[17]
  6. ^ "An so his was by Britons longe afore discovered before eyther Colonus or Americus lead any Hispaniardes thyther."[10]
  7. ^ "And at this tyme an other of Owen Gwynedhs sonnes, named Madocke, left the lande in contention betwixt his bretherne, and prepared certaine shippes, with men [and] munition, and sought adventures by the seas. And sayled west levinge the cost of Irelande [so far] north that he came to a land unknown, where he sawe many starange things. And this lande most needs be some parte of that land the which the Hispaniardes do affirme them selves to be the first finders, sith Hannos tyme. For by reason and order of cosmosgraphie this lande to which Madoc came to, most needs bee somme parte of Nova Hispania, or Florida."[23]
  8. ^ "This Madoc arriving in the Western country, unto the which he came, in the yeare 1170, left most of his people there: and returning back for more of his nation, acquaintance, and friends, to inhabite that faire and large countrie: went thither againe with ten sailes, as I find noted by Gutyn Owen. I am of opinion that the land, where unto he came, was part of Mexico; the causes which make me to think so be these."[25]
  9. ^ "And after he had returned home and declared the pleasant and frutefull countreys that he had seene without inhabitants, and upon the contrarye parte what barreyne and wilde grounde his bretherne and nevewes did murther one an other for, he prepared a number of shippes, and gote with suche men and women as were diserouse to lyve in quietness. And takinge his leave of his frends, toke his journey thytherwarde againe wherefore his is to be presupposed that he and his people enhabited parte of those countreys."[10]

References

  1. ^ a b Fowler 2010, p. 54.
  2. ^ Owen & Wilkins 2006, p. 546.
  3. ^ Curran, Kelly (8 January 2008). "The Madoc legend lives in Southern Indiana: Documentary makers hope to bring pictures to author's work". News and Tribune. Jeffersonville, Indiana. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Lee, Sidney, ed. (1893). "Madog ab Owain Gwynedd" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 35. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 302–303.
  5. ^ a b c d {cite magazine|url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofWales/The-discovery-of-America byWelsh-Prince/ |title=The discovery of America by Welsh Prince Madoc |magazine=History Magazine |publisher= History UK |access-date=4 April 2013}}
  6. ^ "OWAIN GWYNEDD (c. 1100 - 1170), king of Gwynedd". Dictionary of Welsh Biography. National Library of Wales.
  7. ^ a b Angharad Llwyd (1833). The history of the island of Mona. pp. 80–82.
  8. ^ a b "Indiana Legend Says Welsh Settlers Arrived in the 12th Century". latimes.com. Los Angeles Times. 3 September 1989. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
  9. ^ "Why developer has built eye-catching feature outside some of Wales's most expensive apartments". dailypost.co.uk. 7 October 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
  10. ^ a b c Llwyd & Williams 2002, p. 168.
  11. ^ Durrett 1908, p. 124-150.
  12. ^ Powel 1811, pp. 166–7.
  13. ^ "What's in a name: Porthmadog". bbc.co.uk. British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
  14. ^ Triads of Britain  – via Wikisource. Chapter 10
  15. ^ "Merlin and the Discovery of Avalon in the New World". intertraditions.com. Retrieved 1 October 2024.
  16. ^ Williams, Gwyn A. (1979). Madoc: The Making of a Myth, Eyre Methuen. pp. 51, 76.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Gosse, Edmund William (1911). "Dutch Literature" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 719–729. see page 719, lines 18–20
  18. ^ Gaskell 2000, p. 47.
  19. ^ Williams 1979, p. 51, 76.
  20. ^ Williams 1979, p. 48-9.
  21. ^ Llwyd & Williams 2002, p. vii.
  22. ^ Bradshaw 2003, p. 29.
  23. ^ Llwyd & Williams 2002, p. 167-68.
  24. ^ a b Morison 1971, p. 106.
  25. ^ Powel 1811, p. 167.
  26. ^ MacMillan, Ken (April 2001). "Discourse on history, geography, and law: John Dee and the limits of the British empire, 1576–80". Canadian Journal of History. 36 (1): 1. doi:10.3138/cjh.36.1.1.
  27. ^ Barone, Robert W. "Madoc and John Dee: Welsh Myth and Elizabethan Imperialism". Archived from the original on 22 August 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  28. ^ Angharad Llwyd (1833). The history of the island of Mona. pp. 80–81.
  29. ^ Durrett 1908, pp. 28, 29.
  30. ^ Smith 2006, p. 1.
  31. ^ Fritze, Ronald H. (1993). Legend and lore of the Americas before 1492: an encyclopedia of visitors, explorers, and immigrants. ABC-CLIO. p. 119. ISBN 978-0874366648.
  32. ^ Mullaney 1995, p. 163.
  33. ^ Fritze, Ronald H. (1993). Legend and lore of the Americas before 1492: an encyclopedia of visitors, explorers, and immigrants. ABC-CLIO. p. 267. ISBN 978-0874366648.
  34. ^ "The Rev. Morgan Jones and the Welsh Indians of Virginia". The Library of Congress. Internet Archive. 1898. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  35. ^ Williams 1979, p. 76.
  36. ^ Jefferson 1903, p. 441.
  37. ^ Roper, Billy (11 June 2003). "The Mystery of the Mandans". 100777. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
  38. ^ Williams 1963, p. 69.
  39. ^ Ambrose 1996, p. 285.
  40. ^ Kaufman 2005, p. 570.
  41. ^ Sevier, John. "John Sevier letter to Amos Stoddard, 1810". Digital Public Library of America.
  42. ^ "The discovery of America by Welsh Prince Madoc". History Magazine. History UK. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  43. ^ Williams 1979, p. 84.
  44. ^ Williams 1842, p. 373.
  45. ^ Fritze 2009, p. 79.
  46. ^ Bowers 2004, p. 163.
  47. ^ a b c Fowler 2010, p. 55.
  48. ^ McClintock 2007, p. 72.
  49. ^ Curran 2010, p. 25.
  50. ^ Pratt 2007, p. 133.
  51. ^ Morison 1971, p. 86.
  52. ^ "Paul Muldoon". Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  53. ^ Ginanni, Claudia (26 January 2006). "Pulitzer prize poet Paul Muldoon to read". Bryn Mawr Now. Bryn Mawr College. Archived from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  54. ^ O'Neill 2007, pp. 145–164.
  55. ^ Wachtel 2011, pp. 146–151.
  56. ^ a b Fritze, Ronald H. (1993). Legend and lore of the Americas before 1492: an encyclopedia of visitors, explorers, and immigrants. ABC-CLIO. p. 163. ISBN 978-0874366648.
  57. ^ Olsen, Dana (1987). The Legend of Prince Madoc and the White Indians. ISBN 0967790301.
  58. ^ Curran, Kelly (8 January 2008). "The Madoc legend lives in Southern Indiana: Documentary makers hope to bring pictures to author's work". News and Tribune. Jeffersonville, Indiana. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
  59. ^ Kaufman 2005, p. 569.
  60. ^ Williams 1979, p. 86.
  61. ^ Putnam, Walter (29 December 2008). "Mystery surrounds North Georgia ruins". Athens Banner-Herald. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
  62. ^ Fritze, Ronald (21 March 2011). "Prince Madoc, Welsh Caves of Alabama". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Athens State University. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
  63. ^ "Porthmadog". What's in a Name. BBC. 3 April 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  64. ^ "RV Prince Madog Completes Survey in Irish Sea". 16 April 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2013.
  65. ^ "Research Vessel Prince Madog". Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  66. ^ "The Previous Research Vessel - General Information". Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  67. ^ "Fort Mountain's Mysterious Wall". Touring the Backroads of North and South Georgia. Native American Tour. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
  68. ^ "Prince Madoc: The Legend of How the Welsh Colonized North America". historyofyesterday.com. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
  69. ^ Morison 1971, p. 85.
  70. ^ "Alabama backs Madoc plaque return". BBC. 7 May 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  71. ^ "Call for US Madoc's plaque return". BBC. 25 March 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  72. ^ "Madoc's Mark: The Persistence of an Alabama Legend". Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  73. ^ Dane, Joan (1911). Prince Madog, Discoverer of America. London: Hesperus Press. ISBN 978-1-843-91930-8.
  74. ^ Knight, Bernard (1977). Madoc, Prince of America. New York City: St. Martin's Press.
  75. ^ L'Engle, Madeleine (1978). A Swiftly Tilting Planet. New York: Dell Publishing. ISBN 0-440-40158-5.
  76. ^ Pat Winter (1990). Madoc. New York City: Bantam. ISBN 978-0-413-39450-7.
  77. ^ Pat Winter (1991). Madoc's Hundred. New York: Bantam. ISBN 978-0-553-28521-5.
  78. ^ Thom, James Alexander (1994). The Children of First Man. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-37005-1.
  79. ^ Waldo, Anna, ed. (1999). Circle of Stones. New York City: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-97061-1.
  80. ^ Waldo, Anna Lee, ed. (2001). Circle of Stars. New York City: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-20380-1.
  81. ^ Pryce, Malcolm (2005). With Madog to the New World. Y Lolfa. ISBN 978-0-862-43758-9.
  82. ^ Clement-Moore, Rosemary, ed. (2009). The Splendor Falls. Delacorte Books for Young Readers. ISBN 978-0-385-73690-9.
  83. ^ Pi, Tony, ed. (2009). "Come-From-Aways". On Spec (76 ed.).

Sources

Further reading

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