Jump to content

Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by BangladeshiEditorInSylhet (talk | contribs) at 15:01, 23 November 2024 (→top: Changes, textual, etc). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Part of a series on
Discrimination
Forms
Attributes
Social
Religious
Ethnic/national
Manifestations
Policies
Countermeasures
Related topics
Part of a series on
Violence against
Muhajirs
Pakistan
Bangladesh

The Bihari minority in Bangladesh were subject to persecution during and after the Bangladesh War of Independence (a part of the Indo-Pakistani conflicts and the Cold War)[1] (called the Civil War in Pakistan),[2] experiencing widespread discrimination.[3] They largely maintained a pro-Pakistani stance, supported the Pakistan Armed Forces and opposed the independence of Bangladesh and the Bengali language movement of the Bengali Muslims. Biharis faced reprisals from Mukti Bahini and Bengali militias[4][1] resulting in an estimated death toll ranging from 1,000[5] to 150,000.[6][7]

Within the context of the conflict in Bangladesh, the term "Bihari" implies the migrants predominantly from the Indian state of Bihar and West Bengal, who headed for then East Pakistan, after the partition of India in 1947. Later on, all Urdu speaking people, even the Punjabis, Pathans, Sindhi and Baloch from West Pakistan, who were posted to East Pakistan or settled in the Eastern Wing were labeled as Biharis by Bengalis.[8][9]

Bihari representatives claim 500,000 Biharis were killed, while the Pakistani government's "white paper" and the US Consul estimated 64,000 - 66,000 deaths.[10][11]

The Supreme Court of Bangladesh ruled Biharis eligible for Bangladesh citizenship in 1972, and about 500,000 chose repatriation to Pakistan.[1][12] Some repatriation was implemented by the Red Cross over a number of years,[13] but in 1978, the Pakistani government stripped Pakistanis remaining in Bangladesh of Pakistani citizenship.[12] Researchers (such as Sumit Sen)[14] maintain that the Pakistani government's denationalization of the Biharis and reluctance to rehabilitate them in Pakistan are sufficient evidence of persecution to warrant refugee status. The Biharis have also faced institutionalized discrimination linked to their citizenship status,[15] and many live in squalor in refugee camps.[16]

History

Partition violence

Bihar (now a state in eastern India) was plagued by communal violence between Muslims and Hindus due to partition,[17] along with the other former territories of British India.[18] More than 30,000 Biharis were killed in October and November 1946, and it is estimated that up to one million migrated to East Pakistan.[19] In the aftermath of the 1946 riot in Bihar, Jinnah said 'I never dreamt that in my lifetime I shall see Pakistan in being, but the tragedy of Bihar has brought it about'.[citation needed] The Muslim League organized the rehabilitation of the Bihari refugees in Sindh. The arrival of Bihari refugees in camps in Sindh and Bengal in 1946 paralleled the later movement of refugees in 1947.[20]

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (then a student leader) toured affected villages in Bihar with his relief team and was moved to ask Bihari refugees to move to East Bengal in 1947.[17]

Migration from Bihar

The 1947 partition of India displaced between 12 and 18 million people.[21] Millions of Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan while millions of Hindus and Sikhs migrated from Pakistan to India.[22]

Background

One reason cited for communal violence between Biharis and Bengalis was Bengali opposition to Urdu as a national language, which resulted in the Bengali Language Movement and an economic downturn. The relatively secular attitude of East Pakistan increased tensions between the two communities and the two provinces of the country.[23] In the 1970 general elections, Biharis predominantly supported the mostly West Pakistani Muslim League over the Awami League (overwhelmingly supported by Bengalis) and played an active anti-secessionist role in the liberation war.[19]

Biharis supported the Pakistan Armed Forces during the Bangladesh War of Independence, comprising majorities in armed paramilitary groups such as Al-Shams, Razakars and Al-Badr (held responsible for the genocidal campaign against Bengali nationalists, civilians, religious and ethnic minorities). News outlets such as the BBC have published death-toll estimates by independent researchers varying from 200,000 to 500,000. Scholars such as R. J. Rummel and Matthew White estimate the total Bengali civilian death toll at 1.5 million.[24][25] The casualty figure estimated by Pakistan is 25,000, as reported by the Hamoodur Rahman Commission.

Biharis became the target of retaliation. According to historian Christian Gerlach, many scholars have used the wartime actions of Biharis to understate, marginalize and even justify atrocities against non-Bengalis or to suppress the memory of atrocities committed against them.[10] The Minorities at Risk project puts the number of Biharis killed during the war at 1,000;[5] however, Rummel cites a "likely" figure of 150,000.[24]

Events

East Pakistan War, 1971

In early March 1971, 300 Biharis were slaughtered in rioting by Bengali mobs in Chittagong[citation needed]. The massacre was used by the Pakistan Army as a justification to launch Operation Searchlight against the Bengali nationalist movement.[26] Biharis were massacred in Jessore, Panchabibi[citation needed] and Khulna[27] (where in March 1972, 300 to 1,000 Biharis were killed and their bodies were thrown into a nearby river).[28][29]

The magnitude of anti-Bihari attacks by Bengalis throughout the war are contested. Bengali sources admit the death of a few thousand to 30,000 or 40,000 non-Bengalis.[10] According to a white paper released by the Pakistani government, the Awami League killed 64,000 Biharis and West Pakistanis.[30] R. J. Rummel, a historian with the University of Hawaii,[24] gives a range of 50,000 to 500,000 Biharis killed and concludes at a prudent figure of 150,000 murdered by Bengalis overall.[11] International estimates vary from 20,000 to 200,000. In June 1971, Bihari representatives put forward a figure of 500,000 Biharis killed by Bengalis.[10]

Ishrat Ferdousi, a researcher on 1971 atrocities, said attacks on Biharis can be termed “genocide."[31]Sarmila Bose in her book 2011 Dead Reckoning: Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War argues that Bengalis are in a state of denial about the massacre.[31] Bose's claims are not accepted by Bangladeshi historians.[32][33][34]

The Liberation War Museum of Bangladesh has downplayed such massacres, calling them "isolated incidents."[29]

Aftermath

Refugee crisis

The Bangladesh government announced Presidential Order 149 in 1972, offering citizenship to Biharis. According to government sources 600,000 Biharis accepted the offer, and 539,669 opted to return to Pakistan.[35] But according to historian Partha Ghosh approximately 470,000 Biharis out of a total of 700,000 Biharis opted to be repatriated to Pakistan through the International Red Cross.[36] Several groups in Pakistan have urged their government to accept the Biharis.[37][38]

Surur Hoda, a Socialist leader, played an active role in solving the refugee crisis. He organized a delegation, headed by British Labour Party politician David Ennals and Ben Whitaker, which encouraged many refugees to return to Pakistan.[39] In a 1974 agreement, Pakistan accepted 170,000 Bihari refugees; however, the repatriation process has since stalled.[40]

Organisations such as Refugees International have urged both governments to "grant citizenship to the hundreds of thousands of people who remain without effective nationality".[41] During his 2002 trip to Bangladesh, Pakistan president Pervez Musharraf said he sympathised with the plight of the Biharis but could not allow them to emigrate to Pakistan.[42] As of 2006, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) had not addressed the plight of the Biharis.[41] On 19 May 2008, the Dhaka High Court approved citizenship and voting rights for about 150,000 refugees who were minors at the time of Bangladesh's 1971 war of independence. Those born in the country since the war also gained citizenship and the right to vote.[43][44]

Immigration

See also: Muhajir (Urdu-speaking people)

Due to their initial pro-Pakistan stance, the Biharis were consistent in their wish to be repatriated to Pakistan. Initially, 83,000 Biharis (58,000 former civil servants and military personnel), members of divided families and 25,000 hardship cases were evacuated to Pakistan.[36] By 1974, 108,000 had been transferred to Pakistan (mainly by air); by 1981, about 163,000. Both countries have signed agreements on the repatriation of stateless people, but only a few hundred have managed to go to Pakistan.[45] Under the supervision of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees over 119,000 Biharis were airlifted to Pakistan.[46] By 1982, Pakistan had received 169,000 Biharis. Some Biharis also entered Pakistan through illegal means.[46] According to the UNHCR report 170,000 Biharis were repatriated after the second Delhi Agreement. In 1977, 4,790 families were repatriated; 2,800 in 1979; 7,000 in 1981; 6,000 in 1984; and 50 families in 1993.[47] A total of approximately 178,069 Biharis were repatriated to Pakistan between 1973 and 1993.[48][49][50]

In 1988, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) raised about $500 million for the repatriation and rehabilitation of Biharis to Pakistan.[51] A special committee, the Rabita (Coordination) Trust Board, was formed by Pakistan President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq. It received $14 million by 1992, and was requesting additional donations from Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states for the rehabilitation of Biharis.[52]

Land allocated to Biharis in Pakistan in one colony in Mian Channu is now a slum.[53] The Biharis were targeted by the ethnic Sindhi people during the 1980s Karachi riots.[54] In the Punjab province of Pakistan, ethnic Punjabis forcefully occupied shelters allocated to the Biharis.[53] [disputed (for: forceful occupation not mentioned in source.)  – discuss] These incidents [which?] have prompted some Biharis to return to Bangladesh.[45][unreliable source?]

Present conditions

Main article: Stranded Pakistanis

Although many Biharis have assimilated into the Bengali population of Bangladesh, some opt to migrate to Pakistan and are relocated to refugee camps across Bangladesh.[55] According to one estimate, at least 250,000 Biharis are still in Bangladesh urban refugee camps.[56] The camps have become slums, the largest of which (known as "Geneva Camp", with over 25,000 people) is crowded and undeveloped; families up to 10 people typically live in a single room, one latrine is shared by 90 families and no more than five percent of the population has a formal education. Due to the lack of educational opportunity and poor living conditions, young men in the slums have set up an Urdu Bhashi Jubo Chhatro Shongothon (Urdu-Speaking Young Students Association) to increase educational opportunities in their community.[57] Health and sanitation problems persist due to poor drainage and sewage systems, and the economic condition of Bihari refugees has been described in news reports and academic journals as extremely poor.[57]

2014 Kalshi clashes

In 2014, members of the ruling Awami League, aided by police clashed with the members of the Urdu speaking community, in a bid to grab land in Mirpur.[58] During these clashes, nine people including eight members of a family were burnt alive by Awami League and their local Bengali supporters.[59]

The Biharis blamed the attacks being directed by Elias Mollah, the ethnic Bengali lawmaker of Mirpur.[60] Elias Mollah denied involvement and blamed a "vested conspiracy" against him.[61]

Citizenship and reconciliation efforts

In May 2003, a high court ruling in Bangladesh allowed ten Bihari refugees to obtain citizenship and voting rights.[62] The ruling exposed a generation gap among Biharis; younger Biharis tended to be "elated", but many older people felt "despair at the enthusiasm" of the younger generation and said their true home was in Pakistan.[63] Many Biharis now seek greater civil rights and citizenship in Bangladesh.[64]

On 19 May 2008, the Dhaka High Court approved citizenship and voting rights for about 150,000 refugees who were minors at the time of Bangladesh's 1971 war of independence. Those born in the country since the war also gained citizenship and the right to vote.[43][44] Several political parties campaigned in the camps for the Bihari vote during the 2008 general election, and the group was considered important to parties and candidates.[65] Although the court ruling explicitly said that the Biharis are eligible to register to vote in the December 2008 elections, the Election Commission closed its rolls in August 2008 without enrolling them.[66]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Khan, Borhan Uddin; Rahman, Muhammad Mahbubur (2010). Hofmann, Rainer; Caruso, Ugo (eds.). Minority Rights in South Asia. Peter Lang. p. 101. ISBN 978-3631609163.
  2. ^ Moss, Peter (2005). Secondary Social Studies For Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780195977042. OCLC 651126824.
  3. ^ "Citizenship for Bihari refugees". BBC News. 19 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 July 2017.
  4. ^ van Schendel, Willem (2009). A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-316-26497-3. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
  5. ^ a b "Chronology for Biharis in Bangladesh". The Minorities at Risk (MAR) Project. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
  6. ^ Fink, George (2010). Stress of War, Conflict and Disaster. Academic Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-12-381382-4.
  7. ^ Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict: Po - Z, index. 3. Academic Press. 1999. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-12-227010-9.
  8. ^ Redclift, Victoria (2017). "The demobilization of diaspora: history, memory and 'latent identity'". Global Networks. 17 (4): 500–517.
  9. ^ Hali, S. M. (30 March 2022). "The plight of Biharis". Brecorder. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
  10. ^ a b c d Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  11. ^ a b Rummel, R.J. (1997). Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. p. 334. ISBN 9781560009276. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
  12. ^ a b Ghazali, Abdus Sattar (24 January 2013). "Four decades of sufferings of the stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh". The Milli Gazette. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015.
  13. ^ "Bangladesh: ICRC honoured for helping victims of 1971 conflict". 19 April 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 26 August 2013.
  14. ^ Sumit Sen (1999-2000). Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of South Asia (Parts 1 & 2), International Journal of Refugee Law Vol.11 No.4 and Vol.12 No.1
  15. ^ Bradley, Megan (2013). Refugee Repatriation: Justice, Responsibility and Redress. Cambridge University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-1-107-02631-5. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
  16. ^ Bremen Donovan (2014) "'Stranded Pakistanis' living in camps in Bangladesh – in pictures". The Guardian. 11 August 2014. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016.
  17. ^ a b Southwick, Catherine (2012). Blitztor, Brad K.; Lynch, Maureen (eds.). Statelessness and Citizenship: A Comparative Study on the Benefits of Nationality. Edward Elgar. p. 117. ISBN 978-1781952153.
  18. ^ Singh, Atamjit (1996). Natarajan, Nalini; Nelson, Emmanuel Sampath (eds.). Handbook of Twentieth-century Literatures of India. Greenwood. p. 256. ISBN 978-0313287787.
  19. ^ a b Prasad, Chunnu (2010). "Refugees and Human Rights: Comparative Studies between Chakmas in India and Biharis in Bangladesh". In Biju, M. R. (ed.). Developmental Issues in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Concept Publishing. p. 246. ISBN 978-81-8069-714-2.
  20. ^ Ghosh, Papiya (2001). "The Changing Discourse of the Muhajirs". India International Centre Quarterly. 28 (3): 57–68. JSTOR 23005560.
  21. ^ Kibria, Nazli (2011). Muslims in Motion: Islam and National Identity in the Bangladeshi Diaspora. Rutgers University Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8135-5055-8.
  22. ^ Waseem, Mohammad (2005). "Causes of Democratic Downslide in Pakistan". In Kukreja, Veena; Singh, M P (eds.). Pakistan: Democracy, Development and Security Issues. Sage Publications. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-7619-3416-5.
  23. ^ Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds. (1989). "Pakistan Period (1947–71)". Bangladesh: A Country Study. Government Printing Office, Country Studies US. ISBN 0-16-017720-0. Archived from the original on 22 June 2011. Retrieved 16 June 2007.
  24. ^ a b c Rummel, R. J. "Statistics of Pakistan's Democide". Hawaii.edu. Archived from the original on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
  25. ^ White, Matthew J. The Great Big Book of Horrible Things. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 190.
  26. ^ D'Costa, Bina (2010). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 978-0415565660.
  27. ^ Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World. Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-139-49351-2. while 57 [non-Bengalis] were killed in Khulna on March 5.
  28. ^ "Massacre of Biharis in Bangladesh". The Age. 15 March 1972. Archived from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
  29. ^ a b "Fall of Dhaka: How Mukti Bahini 'cleansed' Santahar town of non-Bengalis". The Express Tribune. 15 December 2017. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  30. ^ Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 978-0415486194.
  31. ^ a b "Bangladesh war trial sparks rival calls for justice". Dawn. Agence France-Presse. 23 November 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
  32. ^ "Controversial book accuses Bengalis of 1971 war crimes". BBC News. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  33. ^ "Bose is more Pakistani than Jinnah the Quaid". The Sunday Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  34. ^ "Flying Blind: Waiting for a Real Reckoning on 1971". The Daily Star. 3 October 2011. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  35. ^ Prasad, Chunnu (2010). "Refugees and Human Rights: Comparative Studies between Chakmas in India and Biharis in Bangladesh". In M. R. Biju (ed.). Developmental Issues in Contemporary India. New Delhi: Concept Publishing. p. 247. ISBN 978-81-8069-714-2.
  36. ^ a b Ghosh, Partha S. (2016). Migrants, Refugees and the Stateless in South Asia. SAGE Publications. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-93-5150-855-7.
  37. ^ Mirza, Abdul Maqsood (28 December 2005). "PRC Wants Urgent Steps for Biharis' Repatriation". Arab News. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
  38. ^ "MQM demands issuance of CNICs to Biharis". Dawn. 8 February 2004. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  39. ^ McRobie, George (30 June 2003). "Surur Hoda". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013.
  40. ^ "South Asia Forum for Human Rights". SAFHR. 18 April 2013. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  41. ^ a b "Citizens of Nowhere: The Stateless Biharis of Bangladesh". Refugees International. 15 February 2006. Archived from the original on 25 October 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
  42. ^ "Musharraf wraps up Bangladesh visit". BBC. 31 July 2002. Archived from the original on 4 May 2004.
  43. ^ a b "Court rules that young Biharis are Bangladesh citizens". Reuters. 18 May 2008. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013.
  44. ^ a b Parveen, Shahnaz (26 May 2006). "Citizenship debate comes to end but doubts and worries remain". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
  45. ^ a b "Bangla Biharis weary of wait to migrate to Pakistan". Rediff.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
  46. ^ a b Rizvi, H. (1993). Pakistan and the Geostrategic Environment: A Study of Foreign Policy. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 34–. ISBN 978-0-230-37984-8.
  47. ^ Farzana, Kazi Fahmida (June 2009). "An Artificial Minority: The Stateless Biharis in Bangladesh". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 29 (2): 223–235. doi:10.1080/13602000902943682. S2CID 143009440.
  48. ^ Hofmann, Rainer; Caruso, Ugo (2011). Minority Rights in South Asia. Peter Lang. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-3-631-60916-3.
  49. ^ Khan, Borhan Uddin; Rahman, Muhammad Mahbubur (2013). Protection of Minorities: Regimes, Norms and Issues in South Asia. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-4438-4571-7.
  50. ^ Sen, Sumit (2017). "Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: The Bihari Refugees of South Asia - Part 2'". In Crock, Mary (ed.). Refugees and Rights. Taylor & Francis. p. 314. ISBN 978-1-351-90562-6.
  51. ^ Mahmud, Had; Mir, Amir; Tohid, Owais (8 November 1995). "Pakistan's Orphans". Outlook. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  52. ^ Shah, Mehtab Ali (1997). The Foreign Policy of Pakistan: Ethnic Impacts on Diplomacy 1971–1994. I.B. Tauris. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-86064-169-5. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  53. ^ a b "Will Nitish's visit boost Biharis in Pakistan?". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
  54. ^ "MQM facing extinction". The Nation. Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
  55. ^ "Biharis". Minority Rights Group International. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
  56. ^ "Biharis of Bangladesh, World Directory of Minorities". Faqs.org. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  57. ^ a b Rafferty, Mark; Gilmer, Anna (17 July 2010). "Bangladesh's forgotten students: The Biharis struggle". Global Post. Archived from the original on 13 April 2011.
  58. ^ Azad, Adib; Shaon, Ashif Islam (18 June 2014). "Mirpur clashes kill 10 Biharis". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  59. ^ "9 burnt dead, another 'gunned down'". The Daily Star. 14 June 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  60. ^ "Biharis point fingers at Elias". The Daily Star. 16 June 2014. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  61. ^ Chowdhury, Kamran Reza (23 June 2014). "Bihari Camp Arson Attack: Elias Mollah denies role". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
  62. ^ Rahman, Waliur (6 May 2003). "Vote for 'stranded Pakistanis'". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 September 2007.
  63. ^ Lawson, Alastair (28 May 2003). "Mixed feelings over Bihari ruling". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 March 2004.
  64. ^ "Bangladesh: Stateless Biharis Grasp for a Resolution and Their Rights" Archived 21 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Refugees International
  65. ^ Manik, Julfikar Ali (26 December 2008). "Parties go innovative to grab Bihari votes". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013.
  66. ^ "Bangladesh fails to register its Urdu-speaking citizens as voters" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Thaindian. 16 August 2008.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Persecution_of_Biharis_in_Bangladesh&oldid=1259130782"