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For an explanation of similar terms, see Craniate.

Vertebrate
Temporal range:
Cambrian Stage 3–Present,
518 –0 Ma[1]
Diversity of vertebrates: Acipenser oxyrinchus (Actinopterygii), an African bush elephant (Tetrapoda), a tiger shark (Chondrichthyes) and a river lamprey (Agnatha).
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Superphylum: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Olfactores
Subphylum: Vertebrata
J-B. Lamarck, 1801[2]
Infraphyla
Synonyms

Ossea Batsch, 1788[2]

Vertebrates (/ˈvɜːrtəbrɪts, -ˌbreɪts/)[3] are animals with a backbone or spine, consisting of vertebrae and intervertebral discs. The vertebrae are irregular bones, and the intervertebral discs are of fibrocartilage. The vertebral column surrounds and protects the spinal cord. The other feature unique to vertebrates is the presence of a cranium, also known as a skull.[4]

The vertebrates make up the subphylum Vertebrata in the phylum Chordata[5] in which there are 62,000 known vertebrate species.[6][7] The vertebrates are a major grouping of animals that includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and various classes of fish.[4] Classes of fish include the jawless (Agnatha), and the jawed (Gnathostomata). The jawed fish include both the Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) and the Osteichthyes (bony fish). Bony fish include the Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish), which gave rise to the tetrapods (four limbed vertebrates).[8]

Vertebrates vary in body length ranging from the frog species Paedophryne amauensis, at as little as 7.7 mm (0.30 in), to the blue whale, at up to 33 m (108 ft). Vertebrates make up less than five percent of all described animal species; the rest are described as invertebrates, an informal paraphyletic group comprising all that lack vertebral columns, which include non-vertebrate chordates such as lancelets.

The vertebrates traditionally include the hagfish, which do not have proper vertebrae due to their loss in evolution,[9] though their closest living relatives, the lampreys, do.[10] Hagfish do, however, possess a cranium. For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes called Craniata or "craniates" when discussing morphology. Molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that hagfish are most closely related to lampreys,[11] and so are part of the vertebrate clade. Others consider them a sister group of vertebrates in the common taxon of Craniata.[12]

Etymology

The word vertebrate derives from the Latin word vertebratus, meaning jointed,[13] from vertebra from Latin vertere to turn.[14]

Anatomy and morphology

All vertebrates are built along the basic chordate body plan of five synapomorphies. These are a rigid axial skeleton that includes a vertebral column developed around an elastic notochord. The notochord becomes the intervertebral discs, and runs dorsally to the gut tube along the length of an animal, hence the common name of backbone. [15] The axial endoskeleton typically continues beyond the anus to form an elongated tail.[16] Some vertebrates evolved to become tailless with only a vestigial coccyx.[citation needed] A dorsal nerve cord, which folds and fuses into a hollow neural tube during embryonic development and eventually gives rise to the brain and spinal cord, runs more dorsally to the axial endoskeleton (enclosed by protective skeletal extensions known as neural arches), with a fore-end enlargement that is contained within a distinct skeletonized braincase (hence the alternative name for vertebrates, the craniates).[citation needed] All vertebrates possess pharyngeal arches, which develops into the gill arches, jaw, hyoid and/or the middle ear ossicles.[citation needed] An iodine-concentrating organ called the endostyle, which function as a filter feeding organ in basal jawless vertebrates, has evolved into the thyroid in most adult vertebrates.[citation needed]

Vertebral column

Fossilized skeleton (cast) of Diplodocus carnegii, showing an extreme example of the backbone that characterizes the vertebrates.

With only one exception, the defining characteristic of all vertebrates is the vertebral column, in which the embryonic notochord found in all chordates is replaced by a segmented series of mineralized elements called vertebrae separated by fibrocartilaginous intervertebral discs, which are embryonic and evolutionary remnants of the notochord. Hagfish are the only extant vertebrate whose notochord persists and is not integrated/ replaced by the vertebral column. A few vertebrates have secondarily lost this feature and retain the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon[17] and coelacanth. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages (fins or limbs, which may be secondarily lost), but this trait is not required to qualify an animal as a vertebrate.[citation needed]

The vertebral column is the central component of the axial skeleton, which structurally supports the core body segments and unpaired appendages such as tail and sails. Together with the appendicular skeleta that support paired appendages (particularly limbs), this forms an internal skeletal system, i.e. the endoskeleton, which is vastly different to the exoskeleton and hydroskeleton ubiquitously seen in invertebrates. The endoskeleton structure enables a more concentrated layout of skeletal tissues, with soft tissues attaching outside (and thus not restricted by the volume of) the skeleton, which allows vertebrates to achieve much larger body sizes than invertebrates of the same skeletal mass.[citation needed]

Gills

Gill arches bearing gills in a pike

Most vertebrates are aquatic and carry out gas exchange via gills. The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of crescentic openings from the pharynx to the outside. Each gill is supported by a cartilaginous or bony gill arch,[18] which develop embryonically from pharyngeal arches. Bony fish have three pairs of gill arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven pairs. The ancestral vertebrates likely had more arches than seven, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gill opens,[16] although most, if not all, of these openings are actually involved in filter feeding rather than respiration. In jawed vertebrates, the first gill arch pair evolved into the jointed jaws and form an additional oral cavity ahead of the pharynx. Research also suggests that the sixth branchial arch contributed to the formation of the vertebrate shoulder, which separated the head as a distinct part of the body.[19]

In amphibians and some primitive bony fishes, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches.[20] These are reduced in adulthood, their respiratory function taken over by the internal gills proper in fishes and by cutaneous respiration in most amphibians. While some amphibians such as axolotl retain the external gills into adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods, who evolved lungs (which are homologous to swim bladders) to breathe air.[21]

While the more specialized terrestrial vertebrates lack gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and form the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and, in mammals, the malleus and incus.[16]

Central nervous system

The central nervous system of vertebrates is based on the embryonic dorsal nerve cord (which then flattens into a neural plate before folding and fusing over into a hollow neural tube) running along the dorsal aspect of the notochord. Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates is the presence of neural crest cells, which are progenitor cells critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components.[22] Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the dorsal nerve cord during development, initiate the formation of neuronal ganglia and various special sense organs.[23][24][25] The peripheral nervous system forms when neural crest cells branch out laterally from the dorsal nerve cord and migrate together with the mesodermal somites to innervate the various different structures that develop in the body.[citation needed]

The vertebrates are the only chordate group with neural cephalization, and their neural functions are centralized towards a series of enlarged clusters in the head, which give rise to a brain. A slight swelling of the anterior end of the nerve cord is found in invertebrate chordates such as lancelets (a sister subphylum known as the cephalochordates), though it lacks eyes and other complex special sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalization.[16]

The rostral end of the neural tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), which are further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups.[26] Two laterally placed retinas and optical nerves form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss.[27][28] The forebrain is more well-developed in most tetrapods and subdivided into the telencephalon and diencephalon, while the midbrain dominates in fish and some salamanders. In vertebrates with paired appendages, especially tetrapods, a pair of secondary enlargements of the hindbrain become the cerebella, which modulate complex motor coordinations. The brain vesicles are usually bilaterally symmetrical, giving rise to the paired cerebral hemispheres in mammals.[26]

The resultant anatomy of a central nervous system arising from a single nerve cord dorsal to the gut tube, headed by a series of (typically paired) brain vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. This is in stark contrast to invertebrates with well-developed central nervous systems such as arthropods and cephalopods, who have an often ladder-like ventral nerve cord made of paired segmental ganglia on the opposite (ventral) side of the gut tube, with a split brain stem circumventing the foregut around each side to form a brain on the dorsal side of the mouth.[16] The higher functions of the vertebrate CNS are highly centralized towards the brain (particularly the forebrain), while the invertebrate CNS is significantly more decentralized with the segmental ganglia having substantial neural autonomy independent of the brain (which itself is a fused cluster of segmental ganglia from the rostral metameres).[citation needed]

Another distinct neural feature of vertebrates is the axonal/dendritic myelination in both central (via oligodendrocytes) and peripheral nerves (via neurolemmocytes). Although myelin insulation is not unique to vertebrates — many annelids and arthropods also have myelin sheath formed by glia cells, with the kuruma shrimp having twice the conduction velocity of any vertebrates — vertebrate myelination is annular and non-fenestrated, and the combination of myelination and encephalization have given vertebrates a unique advantage in developing higher neural functions such as complex motor coordination and cognition. It also allows vertebrates to evolve larger sizes while still maintaining considerable body reactivity, speed and agility (in contrast, invertebrates typically become sensorily slower and motorically clumsier with larger sizes), which are crucial for the eventual adaptive success of vertebrates in seizing dominant niches of higher trophic levels in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.[citation needed]

Molecular signatures

Molecular markers known as conserved signature indels (CSIs) in protein sequences have been identified and provide distinguishing criteria for the subphylum Vertebrata.[29] Specifically, 5 CSIs in the following proteins: protein synthesis elongation factor-2 (EF-2), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 (eIF3), adenosine kinase (AdK) and a protein related to ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase are exclusively shared by all vertebrates and reliably distinguish them from all other metazoan.[29] A specific relationship between vertebrates and tunicates is strongly supported by two CSIs found in the proteins Rrp44 (associated with exosome complex) and serine palmitoyltransferase, that are exclusively shared by species from these two subphyla but not cephalochordates, indicating vertebrates are more closely related to tunicates than cephalochordates.[29]

Evolutionary history

See also: Evolution of fish and Evolution of tetrapods

External relationships

Originally, the "Notochordata hypothesis" suggested that the Cephalochordata is the sister taxon to Craniata (Vertebrata). This group, called the Notochordata, was placed as sister group to the Tunicata (Urochordata). Although this was once the leading hypothesis,[30] studies since 2006 analyzing large sequencing datasets strongly support Olfactores (tunicates + vertebrates) as a monophyletic clade,[31][32][29] and the placement of Cephalochordata as sister-group to Olfactores (known as the "Olfactores hypothesis"). As chordates, they all share the presence of a notochord, at least during a stage of their life cycle.[citation needed]

The following cladogram summarizes the systematic relationships between the Olfactores (vertebrates and tunicates) and the Cephalochordata.

 Chordata 
 Cephalochordata 

 Amphioxiformes (lancelets) 

Olfactores

 Tunicata/Urochordata (sea squirts, salps, larvaceans) 

 Craniata 

 Vertebrata 

First vertebrates

The early vertebrate Haikouichthys

Vertebrates originated during the Cambrian explosion, which saw a rise in organism diversity. The earliest known vertebrates belongs to the Chengjiang biota[33] and lived about 518 million years ago.[1] These include Haikouichthys, Myllokunmingia,[33] Zhongjianichthys,[34] and probably Haikouella.[35] Unlike the other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate body plan: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail.[36] All of these early vertebrates lacked jaws in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to the seabed.[37][page needed] A vertebrate group of uncertain phylogeny, small eel-like conodonts, are known from microfossils of their paired tooth segments from the late Cambrian to the end of the Triassic.[38]

From fish to amphibians

Acanthostega, a fish-like early labyrinthodont.

The first jawed vertebrates may have appeared in the late Ordovician (~445 mya) and became common in the Devonian period, often known as the "Age of Fishes".[39] The two groups of bony fishes, the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii, evolved and became common.[40] The Devonian also saw the demise of virtually all jawless fishes save for lampreys and hagfish, as well as the Placodermi, a group of armoured fish that dominated the entirety of that period since the late Silurian as well as the eurypterids, dominant animals of the preceding Silurian, and the anomalocarids. By the middle of the Devonian, several droughts, anoxic events and oceanic competition led a lineage of sarcopterygii to leave water, eventually establishing themselves as terrestrial tetrapods in the succeeding Carboniferous.[citation needed]

Mesozoic vertebrates

Amniotes branched from amphibious tetrapods early in the Carboniferous period. The synapsid amniotes were dominant during the late Paleozoic, the Permian, while diapsid amniotes became dominant during the Mesozoic. In the sea, the teleosts and sharks became dominant. Mesothermic synapsids called cynodonts gave rise to endothermic mammals and diapsids called dinosaurs eventually gave rise to endothermic birds, both in the Jurassic.[41]

After the Mesozoic

The Cenozoic world saw great diversification of bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.[42][43]

Over half of all living vertebrate species (about 32,000 species) are fish (non-tetrapod craniates), a diverse set of lineages that inhabit all the world's aquatic ecosystems, from the Tibetan stone loach (Triplophysa stolickai) in western Tibetan hot springs near Longmu Lake at an elevation of 5,200 metres (17,100 feet) to an unknown species of snailfish (genus Pseudoliparis) in the Izu–Ogasawara Trench at a depth of 8,336 metres (27,349 feet).[44][45] Many fish varieties are the main predators in most of the world's freshwater and marine water bodies . The rest of the vertebrate species are tetrapods, a single lineage that includes amphibians (with roughly 7,000 species); mammals (with approximately 5,500 species); and reptiles and birds (with about 20,000 species divided evenly between the two classes). Tetrapods comprise the dominant megafauna of most terrestrial environments and also include many partially or fully aquatic groups (e.g., sea snakes, penguins, cetaceans).[citation needed]

Classification

There are several ways of classifying animals. Evolutionary systematics relies on anatomy, physiology and evolutionary history, which is determined through similarities in anatomy and, if possible, the genetics of organisms. Phylogenetic classification is based solely on phylogeny.[46] Evolutionary systematics gives an overview; phylogenetic systematics gives detail. The two systems are thus complementary rather than opposed.[47]

Traditional classification

Traditional spindle diagram of the evolution of the vertebrates at class level

Conventional classification has living vertebrates grouped into seven classes based on traditional interpretations of gross anatomical and physiological traits. This classification is the one most commonly encountered in school textbooks, overviews, non-specialist, and popular works. The extant vertebrates are:[16]

In addition to these, there are two classes of extinct armoured fishes, the Placodermi and the Acanthodii, both considered paraphyletic.

Other ways of classifying the vertebrates have been devised, particularly with emphasis on the phylogeny of early amphibians and reptiles. An example based on Janvier (1981, 1997), Shu et al. (2003), and Benton (2004)[48] is given here († = extinct):

Diversity of various groups of vertebrates through the geologic ages. The width of the bubbles signifies the diversity (number of families).

While this traditional classification is orderly, most of the groups are paraphyletic, i.e. do not contain all descendants of the class's common ancestor.[48] For instance, descendants of the first reptiles include modern reptiles, mammals and birds; the agnathans have given rise to the jawed vertebrates; the bony fishes have given rise to the land vertebrates; the traditional "amphibians" have given rise to the reptiles (traditionally including the synapsids or mammal-like "reptiles"), which in turn have given rise to the mammals and birds. Most scientists working with vertebrates use a classification based purely on phylogeny,[49] organized by their known evolutionary history and sometimes disregarding the conventional interpretations of their anatomy and physiology.

Phylogenetic relationships

In phylogenetic taxonomy, the relationships between animals are not typically divided into ranks but illustrated as a nested "family tree" known as a phylogenetic tree. The cladogram below is based on studies compiled by Philippe Janvier and others for the Tree of Life Web Project and Delsuc et al.,[50][51] and complemented (based on,[52][53] and [54]). A dagger (†) denotes an extinct clade, whereas all other clades have living descendants.

The galeaspid Nochelaspis maeandrine from the Devonian period
The placoderm Dunkleosteus terrelli from the Devonian period
The acanthodian fish Diplacanthus acus from the Devonian period
The early ray-fin Cheirolepis canadensis from the Devonian period
The tetrapodomorph Tiktaalik roseae from the Devonian period
The early tetrapod Seymouria from the Permian period
The synapsid "mammal-like reptile" Dimetrodon limbatus from the Permian period
The bird-like dinosaur Archaeopteryx lithographica from the Jurassic period
Vertebrata/
Craniata

Note that, as shown in the cladogram above, the †"Ostracodermi" (armoured jawless fishes) and †"Placodermi" (armoured jawed fishes) are shown to be paraphylectic groups, separated from gnathostomes and eugnathostomes respectively.[55][56]

Also note that Teleostei (Neopterygii) and Tetrapoda (amphibians, mammals, reptiles, birds) each make up about 50% of today's vertebrate diversity, while all other groups are either extinct or rare. The next cladogram shows the extant clades of tetrapods (the four-limbed vertebrates), and a selection of extinct (†) groups:

Tetrapoda
four‑limbed vertebrates

Note that reptile-like amphibians, mammal-like reptiles, and non-avian dinosaurs are all paraphyletic.

The placement of hagfish on the vertebrate tree of life has been controversial. Their lack of proper vertebrae (among with other characteristics found in lampreys and jawed vertebrates) led phylogenetic analyses based on morphology to place them outside Vertebrata. Molecular data, however, indicates they are vertebrates closely related to lampreys. A study by Miyashita et al. (2019), 'reconciliated' the two types of analysis as it supports the Cyclostomata hypothesis using only morphological data.[57]

Number of extant species

The number of described vertebrate species are split between tetrapods and fish. The following table lists the number of described extant species for each vertebrate class as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2014.3.[58]

Vertebrate groups Image Class Estimated number of
described species[58][59] 		Group
totals[58]
Anamniote

lack
amniotic
membrane
so need to
reproduce
in water 		Jawless Fish Myxini
(hagfish) 		78 >32,900
Hyperoartia
(lamprey) 		40
Jawed cartilaginous
fish 		>1,100
ray-finned
fish 		>32,000
lobe-finned
fish 		8
Tetrapods amphibians 7,302 33,278
Amniote

have
amniotic
membrane
adapted to
reproducing
on land 		reptiles 10,711
mammals 5,513
birds 10,425
Total described species 66,178

The IUCN estimates that 1,305,075 extant invertebrate species have been described,[58] which means that less than 5% of the described animal species in the world are vertebrates.

Vertebrate species databases

The following databases maintain (more or less) up-to-date lists of vertebrate species:

Reproductive systems

Nearly all vertebrates undergo sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes by meiosis. The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova. These fuse by the process of fertilisation to form diploid zygotes, which develop into new individuals.

Inbreeding

During sexual reproduction, mating with a close relative (inbreeding) often leads to inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is considered to be largely due to expression of deleterious recessive mutations.[60] The effects of inbreeding have been studied in many vertebrate species. In several species of fish, inbreeding decreases reproductive success.[61][62][63] Inbreeding increases juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species studied.[64]

A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings).[65] This practice generally has a negative effect on measures of reproductive success, including decreased litter size and puppy survival.[66][67][68]

Inbreeding in birds result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (e.g. reduction in hatchability of eggs and reduced progeny survival).[69][70][71]

Inbreeding avoidance

Main article: Inbreeding avoidance

As a result of the negative fitness consequences of inbreeding, vertebrate species have evolved mechanisms to avoid inbreeding.

Several mechanisms operate prior to mating. Amphibians including toads display breeding site fidelity. Individuals that return to natal ponds to breed will likely encounter siblings as potential mates. Although incest is possible, Bufo americanus siblings rarely mate.[72] These toads likely recognize and actively avoid close kin as mates. Advertisement vocalizations by males appear to serve as cues by which females recognize their kin.[72]

Other inbreeding avoidance mechanisms operate after copulation. In guppies, a post-copulatory mechanism of inbreeding avoidance occurs based on competition between sperm of rival males for achieving fertilization.[73] In competitions between sperm from an unrelated male and from a full sibling male, a significant bias in paternity towards the unrelated male was observed.[73]

When female sand lizards mate with two or more males, sperm competition within the female's reproductive tract may occur. Active selection of sperm by females appears to occur in a manner that enhances female fitness.[74] On the basis of this selective process, the sperm of males that are more distantly related to the female are preferentially used for fertilization, rather than the sperm of close relatives.[74] This preference may enhance the fitness of progeny by reducing inbreeding depression.

Outcrossing

Mating with unrelated or distantly related members of the same species results in heterosis, which provides the advantage of masking deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[75]

Outcrossing as a way of avoiding inbreeding depression has been especially well studied in birds. For instance, inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit (Parus major) when the offspring are produced as a result of a mating between close relatives. In natural populations of the great tit, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.[76] Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin.[77] Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently or to join unrelated groups.

Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.

Reproduction in squamate reptiles is ordinarily sexual, with males having a ZZ pair of sex determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair. However, various species, including the Colombian Rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus), Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead snake) and Agkistrodon piscivorus (cotton mouth snake) can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis—that is, they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode—resulting in production of WW female progeny.[78][79] The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.[citation needed]

Mole salamanders are an ancient (2.4–3.8 million year-old) unisexual vertebrate lineage.[80] In the polyploid unisexual mole salamander females, a premeiotic endomitotic event doubles the number of chromosomes. As a result, the mature eggs produced subsequent to the two meiotic divisions have the same ploidy as the somatic cells of the female salamander. Synapsis and recombination during meiotic prophase I in these unisexual females is thought to ordinarily occur between identical sister chromosomes and occasionally between homologous chromosomes. Thus little, if any, genetic variation is produced. Recombination between homeologous chromosomes occurs only rarely, if at all.[81] Since production of genetic variation is weak, at best, it is unlikely to provide a benefit sufficient to account for the long-term maintenance of meiosis in these organisms.[citation needed]

Self-fertilization

Two killifish species, the mangrove killifish (Kryptolebias marmoratus) and Kryptolebias hermaphroditus, are the only known vertebrates to self-fertilize.[82] They produce eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduce by self-fertilisation. This capacity has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years.[83] Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself through uniting inside the fish's body of an egg and a sperm that it has produced by an internal organ.[84] In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another.[85][86] Although inbreeding, especially in the extreme form of self-fertilization, is ordinarily regarded as detrimental because it leads to expression of deleterious recessive alleles, self-fertilization does provide the benefit of fertilization assurance (reproductive assurance) at each generation.[85]

The Living Planet Index, following 16,704 populations of 4,005 species of vertebrates, shows a decline of 60% between 1970 and 2014.[87] Since 1970, freshwater species declined 83%, and tropical populations in South and Central America declined 89%.[88] The authors note that, "An average trend in population change is not an average of total numbers of animals lost."[88] According to WWF, this could lead to a sixth major extinction event.[89] The five main causes of biodiversity loss are land-use change, overexploitation of natural resources, climate change, pollution and invasive species.[90]

See also

Notes

References

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