Citation signal

Legal Citation

Introductory signals are used in legal citations to present authorities and show how the authorities relate to propositions in textual statements. Introductory signals do not carry identical meaning across modern U.S. style systems. The two most prominent citation manuals are The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation [1] and the ALWD Citation Manual [2]. The Maroonbook [3] and some state-specific style manuals also provide guidance on legal citation. The Bluebook citation system is both the most comprehensive and most widely used system by courts, law firms, and law reviews. Below is a brief explanation of the introductory signals used in legal writing under the Bluebook system:

(no signal)

Cited authority directly states the proposition, identifies the source of a quotation, or identifies an authority referred to in the text.

See:

"See" indicates that the cited authority directly supports the proposition given.

 Example: See Gurney v. Lester, 888 F.2d 190, 191 (4th Cir. 1988).

Accord,

"Accord" is used when two or more sources state or support the proposition, but the text quotes or refers to only one; the other sources are then introduced by "accord." The law of one jurisdiction may be cited as being in accord with the law of another.

See also:

This indicates that the cited authority supports the proposition with which the citation is associated, but less directly than that indicated by "see" or "accord". "See also" is sometimes used to refer readers to authorities already cited or discussed. It is most useful when followed by a parenthetical explanation of the source material's relevance.

See generally:

This signal indicates to the reader that the cited authority presents helpful background material related to the proposition. The use of paranthetical explanations of the source material's relevance following each authority introduced by 'see generally' is encouraged.

 Example: See generally Gonzalez v. Whitney & Rainey, 288 S.W. 45, 48 (Tex. 1972).

Cf.:

This signals (for the Latin confer, meaning "compare") that the cited authority states a proposition different from that stated by the person citing to the authority, but that the cited authority's proposition is sufficiently analogous to lend support.

Compare _____ with _________

While not precise as to the degree of support the citation gives to the proposition, this form is very useful in a number of circumstances, where the comparison of two or more sources may give illumination to a proposition that is otherwise difficult to show. Either "compare" or "With" may be followed by more than one source, using "and" between each of them. In legal practice, the writer italicizes "and".

Contra:

This signals that the cited authority directly contradicts a given point: opposition.

 Example: Contra Fort Myers Ins. Co. v. Hansen, 588 S.W.2d 282, 283 (Tex. 1972).

But ____

Any of the signals may be preceded by "but" to indicate the negative of the signal's meaning. One would not use "but" by itself; one would use "contra" to show direct negative authority. The word "but" should not be used in "but see" or "but cf." if one of these signals follows another negative symbol.

e.g.

"E.g." is used with any of the foregoing signals to indicate that there are numerous sources to which the signal would apply, but that citing them in full would be repetitive or wasteful of space. The preceding signal is separated from "e.g." by a comma, except a direct citation, where "E.g." is used by itself.

Order of Signals is generally:

1. [no signal]

2. E.g.,

3. Accord

4. See

5. See also

6. Cf.

7. Compare...

8. Contra, But see, and But cf.

9. See generally

Signals of the same type should be grouped within one citation sentence and separated by semicolons.

Notes

External links