Mansa Musa

Musa I
Depiction of Mansa Musa, ruler of the Mali Empire in the 14th century, from the 1375 Catalan Atlas. The label reads: This Black Lord is called Musse Melly and is the sovereign of the land of the black people of Gineva (Ghana). This king is the richest and noblest of all these lands due to the abundance of gold that is extracted from his lands.
Mansa of Mali
Reign	c. 1312 – c. 1337 (approx. 25 years)
Predecessor	Muhammad
Successor	Magha
Born	1280 Mali Empire
Died	c. 1337 Mali Empire
Spouse	Inari Konte
House	Keita dynasty
Religion	Islam Maliki

Alright, let's embark on a grand journey through a mosaic of fascinating and unexpected facts and stories that stretch across the universe:

Starting with some natural wonders, did you know that Mount Everest, the tallest peak on Earth, is still growing? It rises about 4 millimeters every year due to the moving tectonic plates underneath. Meanwhile, in the depths of the ocean, the Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the world's oceans, plunging nearly 36,000 feet down, which is deeper than Mount Everest is tall.

In the animal kingdom, consider the echidna. This fascinating creature, one of only five species of monotremes (mammals that lay eggs), has a four-headed penis. Each side works in tandem during reproduction. Speaking of unique animal traits, the immortal jellyfish, Turritopsis dohrnii, can revert back to its juvenile form after reaching maturity, giving it the potential to live indefinitely.

Turning to human achievements, the ancient Romans used concrete to build structures that have stood the test of time, such as the Pantheon, which has the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome. Modern scientists are still studying Roman concrete to understand its durability. Meanwhile, in art, the Mona Lisa is one of the most recognized paintings in the world, yet it’s surprisingly small, measuring just 77 cm by 53 cm (30 inches by 20 inches).

In space exploration, the Voyager 1 probe, launched in 1977, has traveled beyond our solar system and continues to send data back to Earth. It carries a golden record containing sounds and images meant to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth to any extraterrestrial life that might find it.

Did you know that a single teaspoon of honey represents the life work of 12 bees? Bees play a crucial role in pollination, which is vital for the production of many fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Without bees, our food supply would be in serious jeopardy.

Let's delve into some linguistic curiosities: there are about 7,000 languages spoken in the world today, but around 40% of them are at risk of disappearing. The English language itself is incredibly rich, with over a million words, although the average English speaker knows only about 20,000 to 30,000 words.

Here's a culinary oddity: in Iceland, there’s a traditional dish called hákarl, which is fermented shark. The shark meat is buried in the ground for several months to ferment, giving it a strong ammonia smell that many find challenging to eat.

On the topic of unusual laws, in Australia, it’s illegal to disrupt a wedding or funeral. This law includes anything from physically interrupting to causing disturbances that could affect the ceremony. In Singapore, it’s illegal to chew gum unless you have a medical prescription.

Did you know that octopuses have three hearts? Two pump blood to the gills, while the third pumps it to the rest of the body. These intelligent creatures can also change color and texture to blend in with their surroundings, making them masters of camouflage.

In the realm of technology, the first webcam was created at the University of Cambridge to monitor a coffee pot. It allowed researchers to check if the coffee was ready without leaving their desks, paving the way for modern video communication.

Here's a historical tidbit: Cleopatra, the last Pharaoh of Egypt, lived closer in time to the moon landing than to the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza. The Great Pyramid was completed around 2560 BC, while Cleopatra ruled in the first century BC, over 2,400 years later.

Did you know that in France, it's considered polite to greet everyone in the room with a handshake or a kiss on each cheek? This custom shows respect and friendliness. In contrast, in Japan, bowing is a common form of greeting and shows respect.

In the world of plants, the corpse flower (Amorphophallus titanum) is known for its enormous size and foul odor, which resembles that of rotting flesh. This smell attracts pollinators like flies and beetles. The bloom lasts for just a few days and can reach up to 3 meters (10 feet) in height.

Speaking of smells, did you know that humans can detect at least one trillion different scents? Our sense of smell is closely linked to memory, which is why certain smells can trigger vivid recollections.

On the quirky side, the shortest commercial flight in the world is in Scotland, between the islands of Westray and Papa Westray in the Orkney Islands. The flight covers a distance of just 2.7 kilometers (1.7 miles) and takes about 90 seconds.

Here's a fun fact about geography: Canada has the longest coastline of any country in the world, stretching over 202,080 kilometers (125,567 miles). It's also home to more lakes than the rest of the world's lakes combined.

In the realm of literature, J.R.R. Tolkien’s "The Lord of the Rings" trilogy contains around half a million words. It's a testament to the incredible world-building and detailed storytelling that has captivated readers for generations.

Did you know that the longest music performance is currently ongoing and will last 639 years? It's a rendition of John Cage's "Organ²/ASLSP (As Slow as Possible)" being performed on an organ in Halberstadt, Germany. The performance started in 2001 and is set to end in 2640.

In the animal world, did you know that kangaroos can’t walk backward? Their muscular tails, which they use for balance, prevent them from moving in reverse. They can also hop at speeds of up to 56 km/h (35 mph).

Here's an intriguing fact about space: the smell of space has been described as a combination of diesel fumes, gunpowder, and barbecue. Astronauts have noted this scent when they return from spacewalks and remove their helmets.

Did you know that the word "nerd" was first coined by Dr. Seuss in his 1950 book "If I Ran the Zoo"? The term was originally used to describe a fictional creature, but it has since become a popular term to describe someone who is highly enthusiastic about a particular subject.

On the topic of unique buildings, the Dancing House in Prague, Czech Republic, is an architectural marvel. Designed by Frank Gehry and Vlado Milunić, it resembles a pair of dancers and has become a notable landmark in the city.

Here's a quirky piece of trivia: the longest hiccuping spree lasted for 68 years. Charles Osborne, an American, started hiccuping in 1922 and continued until 1990. Doctors estimate he hiccuped around 430 million times over his lifetime.

In the world of art, the Sistine Chapel's ceiling, painted by Michelangelo, took about four years to complete. The frescoes, depicting scenes from the Bible, are considered some of the greatest achievements in Western art.

Finally, let's end with a mysterious phenomenon: ball lightning. This rare and unpredictable occurrence involves glowing, spherical objects that can appear during thunderstorms. Scientists are still trying to understand the exact nature and causes of ball lightning.

I hope you enjoyed this whirlwind tour through a diverse array of random facts and stories! If you have any other requests or specific interests, feel free to share.

Alright, let's embark on a grand journey through a mosaic of fascinating and unexpected facts and stories that stretch across the universe:

Starting with some natural wonders, did you know that Mount Everest, the tallest peak on Earth, is still growing? It rises about 4 millimeters every year due to the moving tectonic plates underneath. Meanwhile, in the depths of the ocean, the Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the world's oceans, plunging nearly 36,000 feet down, which is deeper than Mount Everest is tall.

In the animal kingdom, consider the echidna. This fascinating creature, one of only five species of monotremes (mammals that lay eggs), has a four-headed penis. Each side works in tandem during reproduction. Speaking of unique animal traits, the immortal jellyfish, Turritopsis dohrnii, can revert back to its juvenile form after reaching maturity, giving it the potential to live indefinitely.

Turning to human achievements, the ancient Romans used concrete to build structures that have stood the test of time, such as the Pantheon, which has the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome. Modern scientists are still studying Roman concrete to understand its durability. Meanwhile, in art, the Mona Lisa is one of the most recognized paintings in the world, yet it’s surprisingly small, measuring just 77 cm by 53 cm (30 inches by 20 inches).

In space exploration, the Voyager 1 probe, launched in 1977, has traveled beyond our solar system and continues to send data back to Earth. It carries a golden record containing sounds and images meant to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth to any extraterrestrial life that might find it.

Did you know that a single teaspoon of honey represents the life work of 12 bees? Bees play a crucial role in pollination, which is vital for the production of many fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Without bees, our food supply would be in serious jeopardy.

Let's delve into some linguistic curiosities: there are about 7,000 languages spoken in the world today, but around 40% of them are at risk of disappearing. The English language itself is incredibly rich, with over a million words, although the average English speaker knows only about 20,000 to 30,000 words.

Here's a culinary oddity: in Iceland, there’s a traditional dish called hákarl, which is fermented shark. The shark meat is buried in the ground for several months to ferment, giving it a strong ammonia smell that many find challenging to eat.

On the topic of unusual laws, in Australia, it’s illegal to disrupt a wedding or funeral. This law includes anything from physically interrupting to causing disturbances that could affect the ceremony. In Singapore, it’s illegal to chew gum unless you have a medical prescription.

Did you know that octopuses have three hearts? Two pump blood to the gills, while the third pumps it to the rest of the body. These intelligent creatures can also change color and texture to blend in with their surroundings, making them masters of camouflage.

In the realm of technology, the first webcam was created at the University of Cambridge to monitor a coffee pot. It allowed researchers to check if the coffee was ready without leaving their desks, paving the way for modern video communication.

Here's a historical tidbit: Cleopatra, the last Pharaoh of Egypt, lived closer in time to the moon landing than to the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza. The Great Pyramid was completed around 2560 BC, while Cleopatra ruled in the first century BC, over 2,400 years later.

Did you know that in France, it's considered polite to greet everyone in the room with a handshake or a kiss on each cheek? This custom shows respect and friendliness. In contrast, in Japan, bowing is a common form of greeting and shows respect.

In the world of plants, the corpse flower (Amorphophallus titanum) is known for its enormous size and foul odor, which resembles that of rotting flesh. This smell attracts pollinators like flies and beetles. The bloom lasts for just a few days and can reach up to 3 meters (10 feet) in height.

Speaking of smells, did you know that humans can detect at least one trillion different scents? Our sense of smell is closely linked to memory, which is why certain smells can trigger vivid recollections.

On the quirky side, the shortest commercial flight in the world is in Scotland, between the islands of Westray and Papa Westray in the Orkney Islands. The flight covers a distance of just 2.7 kilometers (1.7 miles) and takes about 90 seconds.

Here's a fun fact about geography: Canada has the longest coastline of any country in the world, stretching over 202,080 kilometers (125,567 miles). It's also home to more lakes than the rest of the world's lakes combined.

In the realm of literature, J.R.R. Tolkien’s "The Lord of the Rings" trilogy contains around half a million words. It's a testament to the incredible world-building and detailed storytelling that has captivated readers for generations.

Did you know that the longest music performance is currently ongoing and will last 639 years? It's a rendition of John Cage's "Organ²/ASLSP (As Slow as Possible)" being performed on an organ in Halberstadt, Germany. The performance started in 2001 and is set to end in 2640.

In the animal world, did you know that kangaroos can’t walk backward? Their muscular tails, which they use for balance, prevent them from moving in reverse. They can also hop at speeds of up to 56 km/h (35 mph).

Here's an intriguing fact about space: the smell of space has been described as a combination of diesel fumes, gunpowder, and barbecue. Astronauts have noted this scent when they return from spacewalks and remove their helmets.

Did you know that the word "nerd" was first coined by Dr. Seuss in his 1950 book "If I Ran the Zoo"? The term was originally used to describe a fictional creature, but it has since become a popular term to describe someone who is highly enthusiastic about a particular subject.

On the topic of unique buildings, the Dancing House in Prague, Czech Republic, is an architectural marvel. Designed by Frank Gehry and Vlado Milunić, it resembles a pair of dancers and has become a notable landmark in the city.

Here's a quirky piece of trivia: the longest hiccuping spree lasted for 68 years. Charles Osborne, an American, started hiccuping in 1922 and continued until 1990. Doctors estimate he hiccuped around 430 million times over his lifetime.

In the world of art, the Sistine Chapel's ceiling, painted by Michelangelo, took about four years to complete. The frescoes, depicting scenes from the Bible, are considered some of the greatest achievements in Western art.

Finally, let's end with a mysterious phenomenon: ball lightning. This rare and unpredictable occurrence involves glowing, spherical objects that can appear during thunderstorms. Scientists are still trying to understand the exact nature and causes of ball lightning.

I hope you enjoyed this whirlwind tour through a diverse array of random facts and stories! If you have any other requests or specific interests, feel free to share.

Name and titles

Mansa Musa's personal name was Musa (Arabic: موسى, romanized: Mūsá), the name of Moses in Islam. Mansa, 'ruler' or 'king' in Mandé, was the title of the ruler of the Mali Empire.

In oral tradition and the Timbuktu Chronicles, Musa is further known as Kanku Musa. In Mandé tradition, it was common for one's name to be prefixed by their mother's name, so the name Kanku Musa means "Musa, son of Kanku", although it is unclear if the genealogy implied is literal. Al-Yafii gave Musa's name as Musa ibn Abi Bakr ibn Abi al-Aswad (Arabic: موسى بن أبي بكر بن أبي الأسود, romanized: Mūsā ibn Abī Bakr ibn Abī al-Aswad), and ibn Hajar gave Musa's name as Musa ibn Abi Bakr Salim al-Takruri (Arabic: موسى بن أبي بكر سالم التكروري, romanized: Mūsā ibn Abī Bakr Salim al-Takruri).

Musa is often given the title Hajji in oral tradition because he made hajj. In the Songhai language, rulers of Mali such as Musa were known as the Mali-koi, koi being a title that conveyed authority over a region: in other words, the "ruler of Mali".

Historical sources

Much of what is known about Musa comes from Arabic sources written after his hajj, especially the writings of Al-Umari and Ibn Khaldun. While in Cairo during his hajj, Musa befriended officials such as Ibn Amir Hajib, who learned about him and his country from him and later passed on that information to historians such as Al-Umari. Additional information comes from two 17th-century manuscripts written in Timbuktu, the Tarikh Ibn al-Mukhtar and the Tarikh al-Sudan. Oral tradition, as performed by the jeliw (sg. jeli), also known as griots, includes relatively little information about Musa compared to some other parts of the history of Mali, with his predecessor conquerors given more prominence.

Lineage

	Nare Maghan
1. Sunjata			Abu Bakr
2. Uli			Faga Leye
7. Qu		9. Musa I		11. Sulayman
8. Muhammad		10. Magha I		12. Qanba
		13. Mari Jata II
	14. Musa II		15. Magha II

Genealogy of the mansas of the Mali Empire up to Magha II (d. c. 1389), based on Levtzion's interpretation of Ibn Khaldun. Numbered individuals reigned as mansa; the numbers indicate the order in which they reigned.

According to Djibril Tamsir Niane, Musa's father was named Faga Leye and his mother may have been named Kanku. Faga Leye was the son of Abu Bakr, a brother of Sunjata, the first mansa of the Mali Empire. Ibn Khaldun does not mention Faga Leye, referring to Musa as Musa ibn Abu Bakr. This can be interpreted as either "Musa son of Abu Bakr" or "Musa descendant of Abu Bakr." It is implausible that Abu Bakr was Musa's father, due to the amount of time between Sunjata's reign and Musa's.

Ibn Battuta, who visited Mali during the reign of Musa's brother Sulayman, said that Musa's grandfather was named Sariq Jata. Sariq Jata may be another name for Sunjata, who was actually Musa's great-uncle. This, along with Ibn Khaldun's use of the name 'Musa ibn Abu Bakr' prompted historian Francois-Xavier Fauvelle to propose that Musa was in fact the son of Abu Bakr I, a grandson of Sunjata through his daughter. Later attempts to erase this possibly illegitimate succession through the female line led to the confusion in the sources over Musa's parentage. Hostility towards Musa's branch of the Keita dynasty would also explain his relative absence from or scathing treatment by oral histories.

Early life and accession to power

The date of Musa's birth is unknown, but he still appeared to be a young man in 1324. The Tarikh al-fattash claims that Musa accidentally killed Kanku at some point prior to his hajj.

Musa ascended to power in the early 1300s under unclear circumstances. According to Musa's own account, his predecessor as Mansa of Mali, presumably Muhammad ibn Qu, launched two expeditions to explore the Atlantic Ocean (200 ships for the first exploratory mission and 2,000 ships for the second). The Mansa led the second expedition himself, and appointed Musa as his deputy to rule the empire until he returned. When he did not return, Musa was crowned as mansa himself, marking a transfer of the line of succession from the descendants of Sunjata to the descendants of his brother Abu Bakr. Some modern historians have cast doubt on Musa's version of events, suggesting he may have deposed his predecessor and devised the story about the voyage to explain how he took power. Nonetheless, the possibility of such a voyage has been taken seriously by several historians.

Early reign

Musa was a young man when he became Mansa, possibly in his early twenties. Given the grandeur of his subsequent hajj, it is likely that Musa spent much of his early reign preparing for it. Among these preparations would likely have been raids to capture and enslave people from neighboring lands, as Musa's entourage would include many thousands of slaves; the historian Michael Gomez estimates that Mali may have captured over 6,000 slaves per year for this purpose. Perhaps because of this, Musa's early reign was spent in continuous military conflict with neighboring non-Muslim societies. In 1324, while in Cairo, Musa said that he had conquered 24 cities and their surrounding districts.

Pilgrimage to Mecca

Mansa Moussa (Rex Melly) on the map of Angelino Dulcert (1339)

Musa was a Muslim, and his hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, made him well known across North Africa and the Middle East. To Musa, Islam was "an entry into the cultured world of the Eastern Mediterranean". He would have spent much time fostering the growth of the religion within his empire. When Musa departed Mali for the Hajj, he left his son Muhammad to rule in his absence.

Musa made his pilgrimage between 1324 and 1325, spanning 2700 miles. His procession reportedly included upwards of 12,000 slaves, all wearing brocade and Yemeni silk who each carried 1.8 kg (4 lb) of gold bars, and heralds dressed in silks bearing gold staffs organized horses and handled bags.

Musa provided all necessities for the procession, feeding the entire company of men and animals. Those animals included 80 camels, which each carried 23–136 kg (50–300 lb) of gold dust. Musa gave the gold to the poor he met along his route. Musa not only gave to the cities he passed on the way to Mecca, including Cairo and Medina, but also traded gold for souvenirs. It was reported that he built a mosque every Friday. Shihab al-Din al-'Umari, who visited Cairo shortly after Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca, noted that it was "a lavish display of power, wealth, and unprecedented by its size and pageantry". Musa made a major point of showing off his nation's wealth.

Musa and his entourage arrived at the outskirts of Cairo in July 1324. They camped for three days by the Pyramids of Giza before crossing the Nile into Cairo on 19 July. While in Cairo, Musa met with the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, whose reign had already seen one mansa, Sakura, make the Hajj. Al-Nasir expected Musa to prostrate himself before him, which Musa initially refused to do. When he did finally bow, he said he was doing so for God alone.

Despite this initial awkwardness, the two rulers got along well and exchanged gifts. Musa and his entourage gave and spent freely while in Cairo. Musa stayed in the Qarafa district of Cairo and befriended its governor, ibn Amir Hajib, who learned much about Mali from him. Musa stayed in Cairo for three months, departing on 18 October with the official caravan to Mecca.

Musa's generosity continued as he traveled onward to Mecca, and he gave gifts to fellow pilgrims and the people of Medina and Mecca. While in Mecca, conflict broke out between a group of Malian pilgrims and a group of Turkic pilgrims in the Masjid al-Haram. Swords were drawn, but before the situation escalated further, Musa persuaded his men to back down.

Musa and his entourage lingered in Mecca after the last day of the Hajj. Traveling separately from the main caravan, their return journey to Cairo was struck by catastrophe. By the time they reached Suez, many of the Malian pilgrims had died of cold, starvation, or bandit raids, and they had lost many of their supplies. Having run out of money, Musa and his entourage were forced to borrow money and resell much of what they had purchased while in Cairo before the Hajj, and Musa went into debt to several merchants such as Siraj al-Din. However, Al-Nasir Muhammad returned Musa's earlier show of generosity with gifts of his own.

On his return journey, Musa met the Andalusi poet Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, whose eloquence and knowledge of jurisprudence impressed him, and whom he convinced to travel with him to Mali. Other scholars Musa brought to Mali included Maliki jurists.

According to the Tarikh al-Sudan, the cities of Gao and Timbuktu submitted to Musa's rule as he traveled through on his return to Mali. It is unlikely, however, that a group of pilgrims, even if armed, would have been able to conquer a wealthy and powerful city. According to one account given by ibn Khaldun, Musa's general Saghmanja conquered Gao. The other account claims that Gao had been conquered during the reign of Mansa Sakura. Mali's control of Gao may have been weak, requiring powerful mansas to reassert their authority periodically, or it might simply be an error on the part of al-Sadi, author of the Tarikh.

Later reign

Construction in Mali

Musa embarked on a large building program, raising mosques and madrasas in Timbuktu and Gao. Most notably, the ancient center of learning Sankore Madrasah (or University of Sankore) was constructed during his reign.

In Niani, Musa built the Hall of Audience, a building communicating by an interior door to the royal palace. It was "an admirable Monument", surmounted by a dome and adorned with arabesques of striking colours. The wooden window frames of an upper storey were plated with silver foil; those of a lower storey with gold. Like the Great Mosque, a contemporaneous and grandiose structure in Timbuktu, the Hall was built of cut stone.

During this period, there was an advanced level of urban living in the major centers of Mali. Sergio Domian, an Italian scholar of art and architecture, wrote of this period: "Thus was laid the foundation of an urban civilization. At the height of its power, Mali had at least 400 cities, and the interior of the Niger Delta was very densely populated."

Economy and education

The Djinguereber Mosque, commissioned by Mansa Musa in 1327

It is recorded that Mansa Musa traveled through the cities of Timbuktu and Gao on his way to Mecca, and made them a part of his empire when he returned around 1325. He brought architects from Andalusia, a region in Spain, and Cairo to build his grand palace in Timbuktu and the great Djinguereber Mosque that still stands.

Timbuktu soon became the center of trade, culture, and Islam; markets brought in merchants from Hausaland, Egypt, and other African kingdoms, a university was founded in the city (as well as in the Malian cities of Djenné and Ségou), and Islam was spread through the markets and university, making Timbuktu a new area for Islamic scholarship. News of the Malian empire's city of wealth even traveled across the Mediterranean to southern Europe, where traders from Venice, Granada, and Genoa soon added Timbuktu to their maps to trade manufactured goods for gold.

The University of Sankore in Timbuktu was restaffed under Musa's reign with jurists, astronomers, and mathematicians. The university became a center of learning and culture, drawing Muslim scholars from around Africa and the Middle East to Timbuktu.

In 1330, the kingdom of Mossi invaded and conquered the city of Timbuktu. Gao had already been captured by Musa's general, and Musa quickly regained Timbuktu, built a rampart and stone fort, and placed a standing army to protect the city from future invaders. While Musa's palace has since vanished, the university and mosque still stand in Timbuktu.

Death

The Mali Empire at the time of Musa's death

The date of Mansa Musa's death is uncertain. Using the reign lengths reported by Ibn Khaldun to calculate back from the death of Mansa Suleyman in 1360, Musa would have died in 1332. However, Ibn Khaldun also reports that Musa sent an envoy to congratulate Abu al-Hasan Ali for his conquest of Tlemcen, which took place in May 1337, but by the time Abu al-Hasan sent an envoy in response, Musa had died and Suleyman was on the throne, suggesting Musa died in 1337. In contrast, al-Umari, writing twelve years after Musa's hajj, in approximately 1337, claimed that Musa returned to Mali intending to abdicate and return to live in Mecca but died before he could do so, suggesting he died even earlier than 1332. It is possible that it was actually Musa's son Maghan who congratulated Abu al-Hasan, or Maghan who received Abu al-Hasan's envoy after Musa's death. The latter possibility is corroborated by Ibn Khaldun calling Suleyman Musa's son in that passage, suggesting he may have confused Musa's brother Suleyman with Musa's son Maghan. Alternatively, it is possible that the four-year reign Ibn Khaldun credits Maghan with actually referred to his ruling Mali while Musa was away on the hajj, and he only reigned briefly in his own right. Nehemia Levtzion regarded 1337 as the most likely date, which has been accepted by other scholars.

Legacy

Musa's reign is commonly regarded as Mali's golden age, but this perception may be the result of his reign being the best recorded by Arabic sources, rather than him necessarily being the wealthiest and most powerful mansa of Mali. The territory of the Mali Empire was at its height during the reigns of Musa and his brother Sulayman, and covered the Sudan-Sahel region of West Africa.

Musa is less renowned in Mandé oral tradition as performed by the jeliw. He is criticized for being unfaithful to tradition, and some of the jeliw regard Musa as having wasted Mali's wealth. However, some aspects of Musa appear to have been incorporated into a figure in Mandé oral tradition known as Fajigi, which translates as "father of hope". Fajigi is remembered as having traveled to Mecca to retrieve ceremonial objects known as boliw, which feature in Mandé traditional religion. As Fajigi, Musa is sometimes conflated with a figure in oral tradition named Fakoli, who is best known as Sunjata's top general. The figure of Fajigi combines both Islam and traditional beliefs.

The name "Musa" has become virtually synonymous with pilgrimage in Mandé tradition, such that other figures who are remembered as going on a pilgrimage, such as Fakoli, are also called Musa.

Wealth

Mansa Musa is renowned for his wealth and generosity. Online articles in the 21st century have claimed that Mansa Musa was the richest person of all time. Historians such as Hadrien Collet have argued that Musa's wealth is impossible to accurately calculate. Contemporary Arabic sources may have been trying to express that Musa had more gold than they thought possible, rather than trying to give an exact number. Furthermore, it is difficult to meaningfully compare the wealth of historical figures such as Mansa Musa, due to the difficulty of separating the personal wealth of a monarch from the wealth of the state and the difficulty of comparing wealth in highly different societies. Musa may have brought as much as 18 tons of gold on his hajj, equal in value to over US$1.397 billion in 2024. Musa himself further promoted the appearance of having vast, inexhaustible wealth by spreading rumors that gold grew like a plant in his kingdom.

According to some Arabic writers, Musa's gift-giving caused a depreciation in the value of gold in Egypt. Al-Umari said that before Musa's arrival, a mithqal of gold was worth 25 silver dirhams, but that it dropped to less than 22 dirhams afterward and did not go above that number for at least twelve years. Though this has been described as having "wrecked" Egypt's economy, the historian Warren Schultz has argued that this was well within normal fluctuations in the value of gold in Mamluk Egypt.

The wealth of the Mali Empire did not come from direct control of gold-producing regions, but rather trade and tribute. The gold Musa brought on his pilgrimage probably represented years of accumulated tribute that Musa would have spent much of his early reign gathering. Another source of income for Mali during Musa's reign was taxation of the copper trade.

According to several contemporary authors, such as Ibn Battuta, Ibn al-Dawadari and al-Umari, Mansa Musa ran out of money during his journey to Mecca and had to borrow from Egyptian merchants at a high rate of interest on his return journey. Al-Umari and Ibn Khaldun state that the moneylenders were either never repaid or only partly repaid. Other sources disagree as to whether they were eventually and fully compensated.

Character

Arabic writers, such as Ibn Battuta and Abdallah ibn Asad al-Yafii, praised Musa's generosity, virtue, and intelligence. Ibn Khaldun said that he "was an upright man and a great king, and tales of his justice are still told."

References

Primary sources

• Al-Umari, Masalik al-Absar fi Mamalik al-Amsar, translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
• al-Sadi, Taʾrīkh al-Sūdān, translated in Hunwick 1999

• Cuoq, Joseph, ed. (1985). Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIeme au XVIeme siècle (Bilād Al-Sūdān). Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
• Ibn Khaldun, Kitāb al-ʿIbar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʾ wa-l-khabar fī ayyām al-ʿarab wa-ʾl-ʿajam wa-ʾl-barbar, translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000

Other sources

• Bell, Nawal Morcos (1972). "The age of Mansa Musa of Mali: Problems in succession and chronology". International Journal of African Historical Studies. 5 (2): 221–234. doi:10.2307/217515. JSTOR 217515.
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Further reading

• Ibn Battuta; Ibn Juzayy. Tuḥfat an-Nuẓẓār fī Gharāʾib al-Amṣār wa ʿAjāʾib al-Asfār., translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000 and Hamdun & King 2009

External links

• Mansa Musa I at World History Encyclopedia
• Mansa Moussa: Pilgrimage of Gold (archived) at History Channel's History.com
• Caravans of Gold, Fragments in Time: Art, Culture, and Exchange across Medieval Saharan Africa at Northwestern University's Block Museum of Art