Punk subculture
The punk subculture is a subculture/counterculture based on punk rock. Since emerging from the larger rock 'n' roll scene in the mid-to-late-1970s in the U.K., the U.S and Australia, the punk movement has spread around the globe and developed into a number of different forms.
Punk culture encompasses distinct styles of music, ideology, and fashion,[1] as well as visual art, dance, literature, and film. Punk also lays claim to a lifestyle[1] and community. The punk scene is composed of an assortment of smaller subcultures, such as hardcore punk and streetpunk. These subcultures distinguish themselves through unique expressions of punk culture. Several subcultures have developed out of punk to become distinct in their own right, including goth and psychobilly. The punk movement has had a tumultuous relationship with popular culture and struggles to resist commercialization and appropriation.
History
The history of punk plays an important part in the history of subcultures in the 20th century. The punk subculture emerged in the United States,[2][3] England,[4][5] and Australia[6][7] in the mid-to-late-1970s,[1] and has since undergone several developments.
The punk subculture originated from a number of antecedents and influences. Various philosophical and artistic movements influenced and preceded to the punk movement. In particular, several strains of modern art anticipated and affected punk. Various writers, books, and literary movements were important to the formation of the punk aesthetic. Punk rock has a variety of musical origins in the rock and roll genre. Previous youth subcultures also had major influences on punk.
The earliest form of punk, retroactively named protopunk, arose in the north-eastern United States in the early-to-mid-1970s. The first ongoing music scene that was assigned the punk label appeared in New York City between 1974 and 1976. Around that same time, a punk scene developed in London. Soon after, Los Angeles became home to the third major punk scene. These three cities formed the backbone of the burgeoning movement, but there were also other scenes in cities such as Brisbane, and Boston.
Starting in 1977, the subculture diversified, and factions such as 2 tone and anarcho-punk came into their own. As the punk movement began to lose steam, post-punk, New Wave, and No Wave gained the media's attention. Sometime around the early 1980s, punk underwent a renaissance in the form of the hardcore punk subculture. Hardcore proved fertile in much the same way as the original punk subculture, producing several new groups. These subcultures stand alongside the older subcultures under the punk banner.
The underground punk movement in the United States in the 1980s produced scenes that either evolved from punk or claimed to apply its spirit and DIY ethics to a completely different music, securing punk's legacy in the alternative rock and indie scenes. The commercial success of alternative rock gave way to another style that the mainstream media dubbed pop punk. A new movement in America became visible in the early and mid-1990s, claiming to be a revival of punk.
Music
Music is the most important aspect of punk. Punk music is called punk rock, sometimes shortened to punk. Most punk rock is a specific style of the rock music genre, though punk musicians sometimes incorporate elements from other genres. Punk subcultures often distinguish themselves by having a unique style of punk rock, though not every style of punk rock has its own associated subculture. Most punk rock involves simple arrangements, short songs and lyrics that espouse punk values. Punk rock is usually played in bands, as opposed to solo artists.
Ideology
Punk ideology is concerned with the individual's intrinsic right to freedom, and a less restricted lifestyle. Punk ethics espouse the role of personal choice in the development of, and pursuit of, greater freedom. Common punk ethics include a radical rejection of conformity, the DIY (Do It Yourself) ethic, direct action for political change, and not selling out to mainstream interests for personal gain.
Punk politics cover the entire political spectrum, although most punks find themselves categorized into left-wing or progressive views. Punks often participate in political protests for local, national or global change. Some common trends in recent punk politics include anarchism, anti-authoritarianism, anti-militarism, anti-capitalism, anti-racism, anti-sexism, anti-nationalism, environmentalism, vegetarianism, veganism, and animal rights. Some individuals within the subculture hold right-wing views (see Conservative punk) or other political views conflicting with the aforementioned, though these comprise a minority. Well-known punks with conservative values include Michale Graves and Johnny Ramone.
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Fashion
Punks seek to outrage propriety with the highly theatrical use of clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, tattoos, jewelry and body modification. Early punk fashion adapted existing objects for aesthetic effect: ripped clothing is held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape; ordinary clothing is customized by embellishing it with marker or adorning it with paint; a black bin liner becomes a dress, shirt or skirt; safety pins and razor blades are used as jewelry. Leather, rubber, and vinyl clothing are also popular, possibly due in part to the fact that the general public associates it with transgressive sexual practices like bondage and S&M. Punks also sometimes wear tight "drainpipe" jeans, T-shirts with risqué images, rocker jackets (which are often decorated by painting on band logos, adorning the lapels and pocket flaps with pins and buttons, and covering sections of the jacket, especially the back and sleeves of the jacket, in large numbers of carefully placed studs or spikes), and footwear such as Converse sneakers, skate shoes, brothel creepers, or Dr. Martens boots.
Some punks style their hair to stand in spikes, cut it into Mohawks or other dramatic shapes, often coloring it with vibrant, unnatural hues. Punks tend to adorn their favorite jacket or vest with pin-back buttons and patches of bands they love and ideas they believe in, telling the world around them a little bit about who they are. They sometimes flaunt taboo symbols such as the Iron Cross. Some early punks occasionally wore clothes displaying a Nazi swastika for shock-value, but most modern punks are staunchly anti-racist and are more likely to wear a crossed-out swastika symbol.
In contrast to punks who regularly walk the streets wearing skin-tight plaid pants, a sleeveless band t-shirt, a leather jacket (with the cover of their favorite album hand painted on the back, the paint-free area of the back and both the sleeves coated by a precise grid of studs, and the lapels invisible beneath all the buttons), and combat boots with eighteen eyeholes, there are some punks who are decidedly "anti-fashion," arguing that music should define punk, not fashion. This is most common in hardcore punk.
Visual art
Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually with underground, minimalistic, iconoclastic and satirical sensibilities. Punk artwork graces album covers, flyers for concerts, and punk zines. Usually straightforward with clear messages, punk art is often concerned with political issues such as social injustice and economic disparity. The use of images of suffering to shock and create feelings of empathy in the viewer is common. Alternatively, punk artwork may contain images of selfishness, stupidity, or apathy to provoke contempt in the viewer.
Much of the earlier artwork was in black and white, because it was distributed in zines reproduced at copy shops. Punk art also uses the mass production aesthetic of Andy Warhol's Factory studio. Punk played a hand in the revival of stencil art, spearheaded by Crass. The situationists also influenced the look of punk art, particularity that of the Sex Pistols. Punk art often utilizes collage, exemplified by the art of Crass, Jamie Reid, and Winston Smith. John Holmstrom was a punk cartoonist who created work for the Ramones and Punk Magazine. A black, apocalyptic, nihilist look, sometimes disagreeably complex, as exemplified by the early gray drawings of Joseph Nechvatal, is typical of the mannerist late-punk style. The Stuckism art movement had its origin in punk, and titled its first major show The Stuckists Punk Victorian at the Walker Art Gallery during the 2004 Liverpool Biennial. Charles Thomson, co-founder of the group, described punk as "a major breakthrough" in his art.[8]
Dance
The punk subculture has developed a variety of dancing styles, some which appear chaotic and violent. This has led some punk concerts to look like small-scale riots. The dance styles most associated with punk rock are pogo dancing and moshing (similar to the slam dancing associated with hardcore music). Stage diving and crowd surfing were originally associated with protopunk bands such as The Stooges, and continued to appear at punk, metal and rock concerts. Ska punk promoted an updated version of skanking. Hardcore dancing is a later development influenced by all of these styles.
Literature
Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and prose. Punk has its own underground press in the form of punk zines, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism, and interviews. Some zines take the form of perzines. Important punk zines include Maximum RocknRoll, Punk Planet, and Cometbus. Several novels, biographies, autobiographies, and comic books have been written about punk. Love and Rockets is a notable comic with a plot involving the Los Angeles punk scene.
Examples of punk poets include: Jim Carroll, Patti Smith, John Cooper Clarke, Seething Wells and Attila the Stockbroker. The Medway Poets performance group included punk musician Billy Childish and had an influence on Tracey Emin. Jim Carroll's autobiographical works are among the first known examples of punk literature. The punk subculture has inspired the cyberpunk and steampunk literature genres.
Film
Many punk films have been made, and punk rock music videos and punk skate videos are common. The use of stock footage typifies punk film. Several famous groups have participated in movies, such as the Ramones in Rock 'n' Roll High School and the Sex Pistols in The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle. Some well-known punks have even had biopics made about them, such as Sid and Nancy, which tells the story of Sid Vicious (portrayed by Gary Oldman) and Nancy Spungen (portrayed by Chloe Webb).
Original footage of punk bands is also often used in music documentaries. Recently, numerous documentaries about specific punk bands have been made, such as Westway to the World about The Clash, by punk filmmaker Don Letts. The seminal punk documentary is The Filth and the Fury, detailing the rise of the Sex Pistols. In addition to the members of that band and its affiliates (Malcolm McLaren, Vivienne Westwood, Nancy Spungen, etc.) it also features archival footage of Billy Idol, Sting, Shane McGowan, and a young teenaged girl who would grow up to be Siouxsie Sioux, among others. One of the highlights of the movie is footage of the Sex Pistols playing "God Save the Queen" on a barge in the middle of the Thames during the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, and their subsequent arrest.
The No Wave Cinema movement owes much to punk aesthetics. Derek Jarman and Don Letts are notable punk filmmakers. Many other films are associated with punk, such as 24 Hour Party People, which presents the evolution of punk rock into New Wave and Madchester, and Threat, which focuses on militant Straight edge punks in the New York hardcore scene.
Lifestyle
Not everyone who plays a hand in the punk movement identifies as a punk. Specific subsets of punk identify with the mainline subculture to varying degrees. Punks are typically white males from working class or middle class backgrounds.[citation needed]
Typically, a punk enters the subculture during the first few years of high school. Many punks continue playing a role in the subculture for several years, and some even make their involvement a lifelong commitment. Although adolescents are the main age group in punk, there are also many adults who hold to the punk mentality, but do not necessarily dress the part. Some punks leave the subculture in favour of the mainstream. Those still in the subculture sometimes regard this apostasy as selling out.[citation needed]
Though punk decries overt sexism, the subculture is largely male-dominated, with the except of the riot grrrl movement. Since its inception, female punks have always played important roles in the punk subculture, but numerically speaking, they are vastly underrepresented. Compared to some alternative cultures, punk is much closer to being gender equalist, in terms of its ideology.[9]
Although the punk subculture is overwhelmingly anti-racist, it is vastly white (especially in Europe and North America), and some fringe punk factions espouse views of white supremacy. These groups are usually treated with hostility by the rest of the subculture. Numerous ethnic minorities have contributed to the development of the subculture, such as Blacks, Latinos, and Asians.[citation needed]
Punks generally come from working class or middle class backgrounds. Some punks hold low-paid jobs or are unemployed. Some are homeless, and some rely on squatting, panhandling, or dumpster diving to survive. Gutter punks and squeegee punks vary in their actual involvement with the punk subculture.[citation needed]
Excesses of substance abuse and violence have always been a part of the punk scene. The subculture has dealt with issues of suicide and self harm since its beginnings. Drugs such as heroin, methamphetamine, inhalants, and alcohol have both fueled the movement and plagued it with addiction and overdose. Marijuana and hallucinogens such as psychedelic mushrooms and LSD, though the latter are less common, have found moderate use in the scene. However, later trends in the movement such as the rise of straight edge and proliferation of pacifist strains of anarcho-punk, have diminished the presence of drug abuse and violence in the subculture.[1]
Community
Punks often form a local scene, which can have as few as half a dozen, or as many as thousands of members.[1] A typical punk scene is made up of bands, fans, and music venues,[1] as well as independent record labels, zine publishers, visual artists, and clothing makers. A local scene usually has a small group of dedicated punks surrounded by a more casual periphery.
Squatting plays a role in some punk communities, providing shelter and other forms of support. Punk squats and other punk houses sometimes provide bands a place to stay while on tour. There are some punk communes, such as the Dial House. The Internet has been playing an increasingly larger role in punk, specifically in the form of virtual communities and file sharing programs.
Subcultures within punk
The punk subculture is made up of a diverse assortment of subgroups that distinguish themselves from one another through different attitudes, music, and clothing styles. Some of these groups are antagonistic towards one another, and there is widespread disagreement within punk whether or not some are even part of the larger subculture. An individual punk may identify with several of these factions, or none in particular.
Subculture | Origins | Music | Major bands | Ideology & Lyrics | Fashion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anarcho-punk | First and second wave UK punk | Range of styles | Crass, Conflict, Flux of Pink Indians, Subhumans | Anarchism | Anarchist symbolism, often all-black militaristic dress |
Art punk | Mid-1970s New York City | Protopunk, art rock | Television, Wire, Suicide | Bohemianism, abstract lyrics | |
Christian punk | Early 1980s American hardcore | Pop punk and a range of other punk styles | MXPX, The Crucified, Relient K | Christianity | Christian symbolism |
Crack Rock Steady | 1990s-2000s Ska-core | Fast ska-influenced hardcore punk | Choking Victim, Leftover Crack, Morning Glory | Nihilism, Anti-authoritarianism | |
Crust punk | Late 1980s to early 1990s anarcho-punk | Similar to grindcore; uses elements of d-beat; fuses anarcho-punk, heavy metal, hardcore | Amebix, Doom, Nausea, Antisect | Anarchism, Far left ideologies | Anarchist symbolism, DIY clothing |
Deathrock | Late 1970s California punk | post-punk influenced West coast punk and hardcore | Christian Death, 45 Grave, Cinema Strange | Horror film themes, Nihilism | Black clothing, torn fishnets, makeup, deathhawks, Doc Martins |
Folk punk | Late 1970s British punk scene | Fuses folk and punk music styles | Against Me!, Attila the Stockbroker, Billy Bragg, Defiance, Ohio, The Levellers | Various themes, various leftist ideologies | Various styles, usually plain |
Glam punk | Early 1970s north-eastern United States | Protopunk, glam rock | New York Dolls, Hanoi Rocks, D Generation | Aestheticism, dandyism, narcissism | Cross-dressing, makeup, fetish wear |
Hardcore punk | Early 1980s North America, UK | Faster and heavier version of punk rock | Bad Brains, Black Flag, Minor Threat,Dead Kennedys | Various themes, sometimes political | Often associated with plain working class clothing and short hair (with the exception of dreadlocks). Many hardcore fans are anti-fashion and choose from various punk styles. |
Horror punk | Early 1980s Californian hardcore punk | Punk or hardcore with elements of doo-wop or rockabilly | The Misfits, The Undead, Gotham Road | Horror film and science fiction themes | Black clothing, corpse paint, devilock |
Nazi punk & Rock Against Communism | Late 1970s punk, 1980s Oi! and hardcore | Typical punk, Oi!, hardcore and heavy metal music styles | Skrewdriver, Skullhead, Landser, RaHoWa | neo-Nazism, racism, white nationalism | Nazi symbolism and typical punk, skinhead, hardcore and metal fashions |
Oi! | Pub rock, glam rock, football chants, late 1970s punk | Typical rock band instrumentation, sing-along choruses, simple melodies | Cock Sparrer, Cockney Rejects, Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, Skrewdriver, The Blood, Sham 69. | Patriotism, populism, socialism, football hooliganism[10] | Includes styles associated with the 1980s UK punks, punk-skinheads and football hooligans |
Pop punk | Late 1970s - Current | Punk rock fused with bubblegum pop, heavily influenced by the Ramones | blink-182, Sum 41, Descendents, Screeching Weasel | Off-color and toilet humor, relationships | Rocker jackets, Chuck Taylor All-Stars, neckties, elements of other punk fashions |
Queercore | Mid 1980s American hardcore punk | Range of punk styles | God Is My Co-Pilot, The Dicks, Pansy Division, Team Dresch, Limp Wrist, | Homosexuality, gay rights, marginalized sexuality | Similar to hardcore styles |
Riot grrrl | Early 1990s Seattle, Olympia, and Washington, D.C. hardcore punk | Alternative rock-influenced punk | Bratmobile, Bikini Kill, The Donnas | Feminism, female empowerment, but also related to queercore | Kinderwhore |
Scum punk | 1990s American hardcore punk and shock rock artists like Alice Cooper | Intentionally abrasive, loud, poor musicianship | GG Allin, The Scumfucs, Antiseen | Transgressive art, sexualized and violent lyrics with taboo subject matter | |
Ska punk | 2 Tone, hardcore punk, pop punk, reggae | Typical punk instrumentation plus brass instruments and other wind instruments | Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Operation Ivy, Less Than Jake Rancid | Anti-racism, unity, light personal themes | Styles influenced by the 2 Tone, pop punk and hardcore scenes |
Skate punk | Early 1980s California, skateboarding, surfing | Similar to hardcore punk, sometimes with elements of ska punk and pop punk | JFA, Big Boys, Suicidal Tendencies, NOFX, Ill Repute The Offspring | Anti-authoritarianism, extreme sports | Sagging clothes, skate shoes |
Straight Edge | 1980s Washington, D.C. hardcore punk | Hardcore, heavy metal and metalcore | Minor Threat, Youth of Today, Slapshot, Earth Crisis | Abstinence from alcohol, tobacco and recreational drug use | Athletic apparel, camouflage shorts, black X drawn on hand |
Streetpunk & UK82 | 1980s UK | Elements of Oi! and hardcore; fast, angry and rough | The Exploited, Charged GBH, The Casualties | Working class life, inner-city themes; sometimes political | Includes styles associated with the 1980s UK punks and punk-skinheads |
Subcultures influenced by punk
Several subcultures started out closely related to the punk subculture but broke away, becoming distinct and separate cultures. Some of these groups have retained friendly and cooperative relations with punks, but others have developed a feeling of mutual animosity.
Subculture | Origins | Music | Major bands | Ideology & Lyrics | Fashion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2 Tone | 1970s UK punk, ska, rocksteady, reggae, pop | Typical punk instrumentation plus brass instruments and other wind instruments | The Specials, The Selecter, The Beat, Madness | Escapism (dancing), anti-racism, working class populism | Suits, Trilby hats, & other skinhead/rude boy/mod fashion |
Emo | Late 1980s Washington, D.C. hardcore punk | Emotional hardcore | Rites of Spring, Embrace, The Promise Ring | Personal emotional subjects | Emo fashion |
Goth | Late 1970s UK post-punk and positive punk | Gothic rock | Bauhaus, The Sisters of Mercy, Siouxsie & the Banshees | Horror film themes, macabre outlook and fascination with dark subjects | Goth fashion |
Grunger | 1980s Seattle, Washington | Grunge | Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden | Teen angst, nihilism, anti-sexism, anti-media | Flannel shirts, old ripped jeans, Converse and Dr. Martens shoes. |
Hardline | Late 1980s/early 1990s straight edge | Hardcore, heavy metal and metalcore | Vegan Reich, Raid | Authoritarianism, anti-abortion, heterosexism, veganism, deep ecology, straight edge lifestyle | Varies, but usually typical hardcore styles |
Indie | Mid-1980s US and UK | Alternative rock, alternative hip hop, experimental, glitch, indie rock, power pop and other genres | Sonic Youth, Sebadoh, Pavement | Independent labels, regional diversity, grassroots fanbases | Various styles |
Mod revival | Late 1970s UK | Influences from 1960s mod-related genres; 1970s punk and pop punk; power pop | The Jam, Secret Affair, Purple Hearts | Aestheticism, narcisism, escapism (dancing), youth issues, working class populism | Suits, military parkas, Fred Perry and Ben Sherman shirts |
New Wave | Mid-1970s New York City protopunk | New Wave music | Blondie, Elvis Costello, Talking Heads | More pop-oriented, but still edgy | More mainstream punk styles, suits, pop art influences |
Psychobilly | Late 1970s US & early 1980s UK | Upright bass instead of an electric bass | The Cramps, The Meteors, Demented Are Go, Nekromantix | Rockabilly, horror film and science fiction themes | Rockabilly fashion mixed with punk fashion |
Taqwacore | Late 1990s hardcore | Fast and heavy punk/metal | The Kominas, Vote Hezbollah | Islamism |
Interactions with other subcultures
The punk subculture has had influences on other subcultures that had separate origins from punk.
The late-1960s skinhead subculture had largely died out by 1972, but was revived in the late 1970s, partly because of the influence of punk rock. This led to the development of punk-skinheads and the working class-based Oi! movement. Punks and skinheads have had both antagonistic and friendly relationships, depending on the circumstances.
Punk and hip hop emerged around the same time in New York City, and there has been a surprising amount of interaction between the two subcultures. Some of the first hip hop MCs called themselves punk rockers, and some punk fashions have found their way into hip hop dress. Malcolm McLaren played roles in introducing both punk and hip hop to the United Kingdom. Recently, hip hop has influenced several punk bands, mostly in the pop punk style, including The Transplants, and Refused, and punk themes, such as disenchantment with the urban-industrial landscape, have been expressed in the lyrics of many hip hop artists.
The punk and the heavy metal subcultures have shared similarities since punk's inception, and the early 1970s metal scene was instrumental in the development of protopunk. Glam rockers The New York Dolls were massively influential on early punk fashion and also influenced the look of glam metal. Alice Cooper was a forerunner of the fashion and music of both the punk and metal subcultures. Motörhead, since their first album release in 1977, have had continued popularity in the punk scene, and Lemmy is an anarchist, friend of several punks, and a fan of punk rock in general. Hardcore was a primary influence on thrash metal bands such as Metallica and Slayer and, by proxy, an influence on death metal and black metal.
Conversely, punk subgenres like metalcore, grindcore, punk metal and crossover thrash were greatly influenced by heavy metal. As a result, many punks are fans of heavy metal, and many metalheads find punk rock an acceptable musical style. The grunge subculture resulted in large part from the fusion of punk and metal styles in the late 1980s. However, there have long been tensions between the two groups . In particular, metal's mainstream incarnations have proven anathema to punk. Hardcore and grunge developed in part as reactions against metal music popular during the 1980s.
The industrial subculture has several ties to punk, in terms of music, fashion and attitude.
In punk's original heyday, punks faced harassment and even violent attacks, particularly in the UK, where brawls with Teddy Boys, greasers and bikers were reported. Some older British punks recall skinheads at concerts firstly beating anybody with long hair, then beating up the punks, and then beating up each other. In the United States, punks sometimes faced abuse from rednecks and other right-wing groups such as the Nazi-Skinheads. In Sweden, sometimes the raggare attacked punks. There was considerable enmity between positive punks and the New Romantics.
Interactions with popular culture
In the years following the birth of punk, elements of the subculture have become more socially acceptable (at least in Western-style democratic countries). It many cases, punk was looked at as merely a youthful fashion statement. Some maintain that the punk scene has lost the very heart of its former nature as one of explosive creativity, rebellion, anger, and individualism, and that it has become a mere caricature of what once was. Bryn Chamberlain writes, "By the mid 1980s, the punk became publicly acceptable. The punk became intelligent, artistic and fun. This became the constructed punk: a sterilized figure, a shadow of his mindless adolescent ancestor."[11]
Punk has influenced, and has been influenced by, popular culture in a number of ways. Since the beginning of the subculture, major label record labels, haute couture, and the mass media have attempted to use punk for profit. For the most part, punk has met this cultural appropriation with resistance, because of the punk ethic of musical integrity.[12]
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e f Grossman, Perry. ""Punk"". St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Retrieved December 27th.
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Moore, Thurston (1996). ""Grabbing Ankles"". Bomb Magazine. Retrieved November 19.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Robb, John (2005-11-05). "The birth of punk". The Independent (UK). Retrieved 2006-12-17.
- ^ Savage, Jon. England's Dreaming: The Sex Pistols and Punk Rock. Faber and Faber, 1991. ISBN 0-312-28822-0
- ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation (October 2, 2003). ""Misfits and Malcontents"". abc.net.au. Retrieved November 1.
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- ^ Lee, Michelle (Nov/Dec 2002). ""Oh bondage up yours! The early punk movement--and the women who made it rock"". Off Our Backs. Retrieved December 27th.
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- ^ Chamberlain, Bryn (1996). ""The Quintessential Punk"". Retrieved July 2nd.
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References
- Willoughby Sharp Joseph Nechvatal, Machine Language Books, 1984, 74 pages
- Alan Moore and Marc Miller, eds., ABC No Rio Dinero: The Story of a Lower East Side Art Gallery (Colab, i.e. Collaborative Projects, NY, 1985)