Chemistry

For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation).

Chemistry - the study of atoms, made of nuclei (conglomeration of center particles) and electrons (outer particles), and the structures they form.

Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth") is the science concerned with the reactions, transformations and aggregations of matter, as well as accompanying energy and entropy changes during such transformations. It is also a field of study to investigate matter from the atomic to macromolecular scale, such as molecules, crystals. According to quantum chemistry, all physical and chemical properties of substances are a consequence of their structure at the molecular or atomic scale.

Robert Boyle (1661), Antoine Lavoisier (1787), and John Dalton (1808) can be considered the three fathers of modern chemistry, while some consider the earlier chemist Geber (d. 815) to be the "father of chemistry".

Overview

Chemistry is the scientific study of interaction of substances called chemical substances that are constituted of atoms or the subatomic components that make up atoms; protons, electrons and neutrons. Atoms combine to produce ions, molecules or crystals.

The structure of the world we commonly experience and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with are determined by properties of chemical substances and their interactions. Steel is harder than iron because its atoms are bound together in a more rigid crystalline lattice. Wood burns or undergoes rapid oxidation because it can react spontaneously with oxygen in a chemical reaction above a certain temperature. Sugar and salt dissolve in water because their molecular/ionic properties allow this. Since all of such substances are made up of atoms and in most cases molecules, it can be argued that chemistry can in fact be reduced to the study of interactions of electric charges in them.

Chemistry can be called "the central science" because it connects the other natural sciences, such as astronomy, physics, material science, biology, and geology. These connections are a result of the multidesciplinary character of most sciences in the modern world. Various sub-disciplines utilize concepts from multiple scientific disciplines, For example, physical chemistry involves applying the principles of physics to materials at the atomic and molecular level.

The interactions studied in chemistry may be between two chemical substances or between matter and energy. Traditional chemistry involves interactions between substances in chemical reactions, where one or more substances become one or more other substances. Energetic (enthalpic) considerations are often employed in such studies. For example, when two highly energetic substances such as elemental hydrogen and oxygen react to form the less energetic substance water. reaction equations summarize a specific reaction.

The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical reaction is always equal. Entropy, a measure of disorder is often a determining factor in the feasibility of a chemical reaction. Sometimes catalysts, are also used to facilitate chemical reactions.

Chemical analysis, as in spectroscopy, chromatography, is an integral part of chemistry, .

Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne

Substances tend to be classified in terms of their energy or phase as well as their chemical compositions. The three common phases of matter are Solid, Liquid and Gas.

Scientists who are engaged in chemical research are known as chemists. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines.

The chemistry taught at the high school or early college level is often called "general chemistry" and is intended to be an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts and to give the student the tools to continue on to more advanced subjects. Many concepts presented at this level are often incomplete and technically inaccurate, yet they are of extraordinary utility. Chemists therefore use these simple, elegant tools and explanations in their work because they have proved their worth.

The genesis of chemistry can be traced to alchemy which had been practiced for millennia throughout the world and is responsible for the introduction of many analytical and sythetic tools used even today.

History

Robert Boyle - A founder of modern chemistry through use of controlled experiments, as contrasted with earlier rudimentary alchemical methods

Main article: History of chemistry

See also: Alchemy, Timeline of chemistry, and Nobel Prize in Chemistry

The genesis of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning which led to metallurgy- the art and science of processing ores to get metals. Later on the technology for preparation of alloys was discovered as a method for strengthening metals. Thus, the process for purification of Gold was known long before the first alloys were created, even though, the underlying principles were not well understood -- it was thought to be a transformation rather than purification. Many scholars in those days thought it reasonable to find a means for transforming cheaper (base) metals into gold. This led to the rise of alchemy, and the search for the Philosopher's Stone, which was believed to bring about such a transformation by mere touch. This development took place over thousands of years.

It is often said that medieval Muslim were the earliest chemists. this claim is particularly based on the works of Geber (d. 815), Al-Kindi (d. 873), Al-Razi (d. 925), and Abu-Rayhan Biruni (d. 1048).The works of Geber became more widely known in Europe through Latin translations by a pseudo-Geber in 14th century Spain, who also wrote some of his own books under the pen name "Geber". The contribution of Indians in the development of chemistry was also quite significant.

One of the main factors that led to the emergence of chemistry in Europe was the recurrent incidence of the plague and blights in Europe during the so called Dark Ages. This gave rise to a need for medicines. It was thought that there might exist a universal medicine that can cure all diseases - called the Elixir of Life. However, like the Philosopher's Stone, neither one were ever found. Modern day chemistry states that such a medicine is not possible. Alchemy for many was an avenue for charlatans to create fake medicines.

For many practitioners of the so called alchemy, it was an intellectual pursuit that could not separate superstition from scientific inquiry. Over time, practitioners got better at it. Paracelsus (1493-1541) rejected the 4-elemental theory and with only a vague understanding of his chemicals and medicines, formed a hybrid of alchemy and science in what was to be called iatrochemistry. The influences of philosophers such as Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and René Descartes (1596-1650), led to a scientific revolution. These philosophers demanded more rigor in mathematics and in removing bias from scientific observations. In chemistry, this began with Robert Boyle (1627-1691), who discovered gases, and came up with equations that were known as Boyle's Law. The person often termed as the Father of Chemistry is Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), who developed the theory of Conservation of mass in 1783. Equally important was the development of the Atomic Theory, principally by John Dalton (1766-1844) around 1800.

The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history from the days of alchemy and culminating in the creation of the periodic table of the chemical elements by Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) and later discoveries of some synthetic elements.

Etymology

Main article: Chemistry (etymology)

The word chemistry comes from the earlier study of alchemy, which is basically the quest to make gold from earthen starting materials. As to the origin of the word "alchemy" the question is a debatable one; it certainly can be traced back to the Greeks, and some, following E. Wallis Budge, have also asserted Egyptian origins. Alchemy, generally, derives from the old French alkemie from the Arabic al-kimia - "the art of transformation". The Arabs borrowed the word "kimia" from the Greeks when they conquered Alexandria in the year 642 AD. A tentative outline is as follows:

1. Egyptian alchemy [5,000 BC – 400 BC], formulate early "element" theories such as the Ogdoad.
2. Greek alchemy [332 BC – 642 AD], the Greek king Alexander the Great conquers Egypt and founds Alexandria, having the world's largest library, where scholars and "wise" men gather to study.
3. Arabian alchemy [642 AD – 1200], the Arabs take over Alexandria; Jabir is the main chemist
4. European alchemy [1300 – present], Pseudo-Geber builds on Arabic chemistry
5. Chemistry [1661], Boyle writes his classic chemistry text The Sceptical Chymist
6. Chemistry [1787], Lavoisier writes his classic Elements of Chemistry
7. Chemistry [1803], Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory

Thus, an alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

Definitions

In retrospect, the definition of chemistry seems to invariably change per decade, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. Shown below, for example, are some of the standard definitions used by various noted chemists:

• Alchemy (330) – the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies (Zosimos).
• Chymistry (1661) – the subject of the material principles of mixt bodies (Boyle).
• Chymistry (1663) – a scientifick art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to an higher perfection (Glaser).
• Chemistry (1730) – the art of resolving mixt, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles (Stahl).
• Chemistry (1837) – the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces (Dumas).
• Chemistry (1947) – the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances (Pauling).
• Chemistry (1998) – the study of matter and the changes it undergoes (Chang).

Basic concepts

Chemistry - the study of atoms and the structures they can form together, such as Paclitaxel shown here

Many terms in chemistry have been developed to classify matter.

Atom

Main article: Atom

An atom is the basic unit of an element. It is a collection of matter consisting of a positively charged core (the atomic nucleus) which contains protons and neutrons, and which maintains a number of electrons to balance the positive charge in the nucleus. The Atom is also the smallest portion into which an element can be divided and still retain its properties, made up of a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by a system of electrons.

Element

Main article: Chemical element

The concept of chemical element is related to that of chemical substance. A chemical element is characterized by a particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms. This number is known as the atomic number of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element uranium.

The most convenient presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table of the chemical elements, which groups elements by atomic number. Due to its ingenious arrangement, groups, or columns, and periods, or rows, of elements in the table either share several chemical properties, or follow a certain trend in characteristics such as atomic radius, electronegativity, etc. Lists of the elements by name, by symbol, and by atomic number are also available. In addition, several isotopes of an element may exist.

Compound

Main article: Chemical compound

A compound is a substance with a particular ratio of atoms of particular chemical elements which determines its composition, and a particular organization which determines chemical properties. For example, water is a compound containing hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of two to one, with the oxygen between the hydrogens, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by chemical reactions.

Substance

Main article: Chemical substance

A chemical substance is a concept that is related to an element or a compound, it is a kind of matter that has a definite composition and properties. Strictly speaking a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements is not a chemical substance, but it may be called a chemical. Most of the substances we encounter in our daily life are one or another kind of mixtures, e.g. air, alloys, biomass etc.

Nomenclature of substances is a critical part of the language of chemistry. Generally it refers to a system for naming chemical compounds. Earlier in the history of chemistry substances were given name by their discoverer, which often led to some confusion and difficulty. However, today the IUPAC system of chemical nomenclature allows chemists to specify by name specific compounds amongst the infinite variety of possible chemicals.

The standard nomenclature is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system. Inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system. In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substance. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a numeric number known as CAS registry number.

Molecule

Main article: Molecule

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a chemical reaction with another substance. Molecules differ from other chemical entities in that they can and often do exist as single electrically neutral units. Salts, for example, do not consist of molecular units but rather of many cations and anions in a crystal lattice. Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.

One of the main characteristic of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature.

Mole

Main article: Mole (unit)

A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules or ions) as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams) of carbon-12, where the carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground state. The number of atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12 is known as the Avogadro constant, and is determined empirically. The currently accepted value is 6.02214179(30)×10²³ mol^-1 (2007 CODATA). It is much like the term "a dozen" in that it is an absolute number (having no units) and can describe any type of elementary object, although the mole's use is usually limited to measurement of subatomic, atomic, and molecular structures.

Ions and Salts

Main article: Ion

An ion is a charged species, or an atom or a molecule that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Positively charged cations (e.g. sodium cation Na⁺) and negatively charged anions (e.g. chloride Cl⁻) can form neutral salts (e.g. sodium chloride NaCl). Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH⁻) and phosphate (PO₄³⁻).

Phase

Main article: Phase (matter)

In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature. Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.

Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.

The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principle difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology.

Chemical bond

Main article: Chemical bond

Electron atomic and molecular orbitals

A chemical bond is a concept for understanding how atoms stick together in molecules. It may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. These potentials create the interactions which holds together atoms in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, Valence Bond Theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to predict molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory fails and alternative approaches, primarily based on principles of quantum chemistry such as the molecular orbital theory, are necessary. See diagram on electronic orbitals.

Chemical reaction

Main article: Chemical reaction

Chemical reaction is a concept related to the transformation of a chemical substance through its interaction with another, or as a result of its interaction with some form of energy. A chemical reaction may occur naturally or carried out in a laboratory by chemists in specially designed vessels which are often laboratory glassware. It can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. For example, substances that react with oxygen to produce other substances are said to undergo oxidation; similarly a group of substances called acids or alkalis can react with one another to neutralize each other's effect, a phenomenon known as neutralization.

A stricter definition exists that states "a Chemical Reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species". Under this definition, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events').

Energy

A chemical reaction is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of its reactants. Some energy is transferred in the form of heat or light to (or from) the surroundings, thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.

A chemical reaction is invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor $e^{-E/kT}$ - that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound.

A reaction is said to be exothermic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in case of endothermic reactions the situation is otherwise.

There are only a limited possible states energy of electrons, atoms and molecules, that are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in an higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive, that is amenable to chemical reactions.

The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and those of its surroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water, it is liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by Hydrogen bonds. Whereas Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.

The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to other depend on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is easily transferred from almost any substance to another mainly because the vibrational and totational energy levels in a substance are very closely placed. Because, the electronic energy levels are not so closely spaced, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with equal felicity, as is also the case with electrical energy.

The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines of different kinds of spectra often used in chemical spectroscopy e.g. IR, microwave, NMR, ESR etc. This is used to identify the composition of remote objects - like stars and far galaxies - by analyzing their radiation (see spectroscopy).

Emission spectrum of iron

These lines (so called because they appear as linear features in dispersion spectra (see example above), such as might be produced by a prism or diffraction grating) are the results of release or absorption of certain specific amount of energy involved in the transition of atoms or molecules from one state to another.

The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or transform other chemical substances.

Chemical laws

Main article: Chemical law

Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, the most fundamental concept in chemistry is the law of conservation of mass Modern physics shows that it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics.

Other important laws of chemistry include the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust's law of definite composition and Dalton's law of multiple proportions. However, in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Such compounds are known as non-stoichiometric compounds.

Subdisciplines

Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.

• Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.

• Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated with molecular biology and genetics.

• Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.

• Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of substances with a useful function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases.

• Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field.

• Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.

• Physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics.

• Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. Essentially from reductionism theoretical chemistry is just physics, just like fundamental biology is just chemistry and physics.

Other fields include Astrochemistry, Atmospheric chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Chemical biology, Chemo-informatics, Electrochemistry, Environmental chemistry, Flow chemistry, Geochemistry, Green chemistry, History of chemistry, Materials science, Medicinal chemistry, Molecular Biology, Molecular genetics, Nanotechnology, Organometallic chemistry, Petrochemistry, Pharmacology, Photochemistry, Phytochemistry, Polymer chemistry, Solid-state chemistry, Sonochemistry, Supramolecular chemistry, Surface chemistry, Immunochemistry and Thermochemistry.

Quantum chemistry

Main article: Quantum chemistry

Quantum chemistry mathematically describes the fundamental behavior of matter at the molecular scale. It is, in principle, possible to describe all chemical systems using this theory. In practice, only the simplest chemical systems may realistically be investigated in purely quantum mechanical terms, and approximations must be made for most practical purposes (e.g., Hartree-Fock, post Hartree-Fock or Density functional theory, see computational chemistry for more details). Hence a detailed understanding of quantum mechanics is not necessary for most chemistry, as the important implications of the theory (principally the orbital approximation) can be understood and applied in simpler terms.

In quantum mechanics (several applications in computational chemistry and quantum chemistry), the Hamiltonian, or the physical state, of a particle can be expressed as the sum of two operators, one corresponding to kinetic energy and the other to potential energy. The Hamiltonian in the Schrödinger wave equation used in quantum chemistry does not contain terms for the spin of the electron.

Solutions of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom gives the form of the wave function for atomic orbitals, and the relative energy of say the 1s,2s,2p and 3s orbitals. The orbital approximation can be used to understand the other atoms e.g. helium, lithium and carbon.

Chemical industry

Main article: chemical industry

The chemical industry represents an important economic activity. The global top 50 chemical producers in 2004 had sales of 587 billion US dollars with a profit margin of 8.1% and research and development spending of 2.1% of total chemical sales.

See also

Lists

• Common chemicals - Where to find common chemical components
• List of basic chemistry topics
• List of chemistry topics
• List of chemists
• List of compounds
• List of important publications in chemistry
• Periodic Table of the Elements
• Timeline of chemistry
• Unsolved problems in chemistry

Related topics

• Alchemy
• Biochemistry
• Chemical education
• Chemical engineering
• History of chemistry
• Linus Pauling
• Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals - A proposed European Union regulation
• Perfection ("Perfection in physics and chemistry")

Further reading

Popular reading

• Atkins, P.W. Galileo's Finger (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0198609418
• Atkins, P.W. Atkins' Molecules (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0521823978
• Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0195150279

Introductory undergraduate text books

• Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0-07-115221-0.
• Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins inorganic chemistry (4th edition) 2006 (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-926463-5
• Clayden, J., Greeves, N., Warren, S., Wothers, P. Organic Chemistry 2000 (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-850346-6
• Voet and Voet Biochemistry (Wiley) ISBN 0-471-58651-X

Advanced Undergraduate-level or Graduate text books

• Atkins, P.W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-879285-9
• Atkins, P.W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press)
• McWeeny, R. Coulson's Valence (Oxford Science Publications) ISBN 0-19-855144-4
• Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell University Press) ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
• Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0
• Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science Students (Longman)ISBN 0-582-44416-0
• Smart and Moore Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (Chapman and Hall) ISBN 0-412-40040-5

Professional societies

• American Chemical Society
• Chemical Institute of Canada
• Chemical Society of Peru
• International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
• Royal Australian Chemical Institute
• Royal Society of Chemistry
• Society of Chemical Industry
• World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists

External links

• International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
• IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page, see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms
• Interactive Mind Map of Chemistry
• / Chemical energetics

For a full list of external links and suppliers see Wikipedia:Chemical sources