Genghis Khan

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**Genghis Khan**
Genghis Khan portrait
Birth name:	Borjigin Temüjin
Family name:	Borjigin
Title:	Great Khan of Mongol Empire (Khan of the Mongols)
Birth:	1155/1162/1167
Place of birth:	Hentiy, Mongolia
Death:	August 18, 1227
Dates of reign:	1206 - August 18, 1227
Succeeded by:	Ogëdei Khan
Marriage:	Börte Chono
Children:	Borjigin Jochi, son Borjigin Chagatai, son Borjigin Ogedei, son Borjigin Tolui, son

For the German pop band, see Dschinghis Khan

Genghis Khan (1155/1162/1167 - August 18, 1227) (Cyrillic: Чингис Хаан), also spelled as Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, etc., pronounced [ʧiŋɡis xaːn], born as Temüjin (Тэмүүжин), was a Mongol political and military leader and founder of the Mongol Empire (1206 - 1368).

Overview

Genghis Khan was arguably the most influential and successful military leader in world history, and is considered by many a military and political genius. With a highly persuasive character and an unequivocal loyalty to Mongol tradition, he is highly respected by Mongols for ending centuries of internal conflict and consolidating the Mongol Empire. Many Chinese revere him as the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. On the other hand, in regions like the Middle East where his forces killed millions, or Central and Eastern Europe, which were briefly invaded by Mongol armies, the view is more negative.

Genghis Khan's descendants included Kublai Khan, Babur, and allegedly Timur. His family ruled the Mongols until the 17th century, when the last khan of his house was conquered by the Manchu.

Genghis Khan and his successors used superior tactics and organization to create the largest empire in history. They controlled most of Eurasia including Central, North, East and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, penetrating Central Europe to within days' travel of Vienna. Genghis Khan and his successors built the most feared and powerful empire in the world, in part by inflicting considerable loss of life and property on their enemies.

Early life

He is believed to have been born with the name of Temüjin between 1155 and 1167 in Hentiy, Mongolia. If this is true, his birthplace is presumably in the mountainous area of Burhan Haldun. He was the second son of Yesükhei, a tribal chief of the Kiyad. Yesükhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин) . His mother was named Hoelun and she was of the Olkunut tribe. Temüjin was named after one of the more powerful chiefs of a rival tribe.

Genghis Khan's early life was difficult. When he was only nine, his father delivered him to his future wife's family, where he was to live until he reached the marriageable age of 14. Shortly thereafter, his father was murdered by the neighboring Tatars while returning home. This event made Temüjin the clan's de facto chief, though his clan soon abandoned him and his family, refusing to be led by a mere boy. For the next few years, he and his family lived the life of poor nomads, surviving primarily on marmots and other small game. In one incident, Temüjin reportedly slew his half-brother over a dispute about sharing hunting spoils. In another, he was captured in a raid by his former tribe and held captive with a wooden collar around his neck; he later escaped with help from a sympathetic captor. His mother, Hoelun, taught him many lessons on survival in the harsh political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances with others, which would shape his understanding in his later years. Temujin's spiritual alignment was Shamanistic and his lifestyle was nomadic.

Around the age of 16, Temüjin married Börte of the Konkirat tribe. Later she was kidnapped in a raid by the Merkit tribe and Temüjin called on his friend and later rival, Jamuka, and his protector, Toghril of the Kereit tribe, for aid. Börte's first child, Jochi, was born suspiciously soon after she was freed from the Merkit, leading to questions regarding his paternity.

Uniting the tribes and the road to power

File:Genghis Khan.JPG

Representation of Genghis Khan and soldiers.

Genghis Khan began his slow ascent to power by allying himself with his father's friend Toghril, a local chief. He joined the Keriat, a confederacy of Mongols led by Wang Khan. After successful campaigns against the Tartars (1202), he was adopted as Wang Khan's heir. This led to jealousy on the part of Senggum, Wang's former heir, who planned to assassinate Temujin. Temüjin, after learning of Senggum's intentions, eventually defeated Senggum and his loyalists and succeeded to the title of Wang Khan.

Feeling the need to secure his borders from the south against the Jin Empire and from the west against the Xia, Genghis Khan organized his people to prepare for possible conflicts, especially with the Chinese. The Chinese had grown uncomfortable with the newly unified Mongols, fearing that they would eventually restrict the Chinese supply of goods, as many trade routes ran through Mongol territory. With his personal charisma and strong will, Genghis Khan managed to unite the tribes under a single system by 1206, a monumental feat for the Mongols who had a long history of internecine dispute and economic hardship. At a Kurultai (a council of Mongol chiefs) he was acknowledged as the first and only "Genghis Khan" or Khagan, the ruler of rulers or an emperor in equivalent. He was further titled "Genghis Khan" (alternate spellings exist; see above) or Rightful Ruler (also "Ruler of all between the oceans") at around the age of 40. The name "Genghis" (written "Chinggis" by the Uighur scribes who first recorded it) is based on the Chinese word "zhèng", meaning "true" or "just"¹.

Genghis Khan eventually created a written code of laws for the Mongols called Yassa, and he demanded it to be followed very strictly in order to strengthen his organization and his power among his people. He was looked on as a "man of the people", sharing his wealth and resources with his followers and he remained true to his shamanistic and nomadic traditions throughout his life.

Leader of the Mongols

Accomplishments

Politics and economics

Main article: Organization of state under Genghis Khan

The Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan saw the advent of many new laws and customs, such as freedom of religion, meritocracy, cultural diversity, extensive trade, tax break/abolishment of taxes for certain sectors, capital punishment and patriotism that several democratic societies use today.

Though illiterate when he was young, Temujim learned to read Taoist sermons later in his life, and he himself quickly saw the advances of different languages when he encountered them amongst the conquered peoples. He brought tutors with him to teach his children and himself to read and write. Genghis Khan promoted and used anything he found of technological advantage, even if he did not fully understand it, including the sciences of linguistics, astronomy and mathematics. The Mongols introduced most of Asia to the abacus and the compass, and brought to Europe the explosives that were first created in China, as well as high-powered siege engines. Many argue, however, that his most significant achievement was simply uniting the Mongol tribes.

Military

Main article: Military advances of Genghis Khan

File:H 01.jpg

Representation of 12th and 13th century Mongol soldiers in Naadam.

Genghis Khan made advances in military disciplines, such as mobility, psychological warfare, intelligence, military autonomy and tactics.

Genghis Khan's armies seemed to be incomparably superior to their enemies in the 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy and mobility. On of the main advances he made were in his refusal to divide his troops into different ethnic enclaves. This created a sense of unity among the troops that allowed them to see themselves as belonging to the Genghis Khan's army first and to their ethnic group second. Also, he divided his armies into smaller groups, which allowed them to attack their enemies on several fronts at once. Finally, Mongol leaders did not restrict themselves to any set formations, so that they were mixed in amongst the troops and difficult to track or single out.

Campaigns

China

At the time of the Khuriltai, Genghis was involved in a dispute with Empire of Western Xia, which was demanding tribute from the Mongols. Genghis Khan led the Mongols against Xia, and conquered the empire despite initial difficulties in defeating the well-defended cities in Western Xia. By 1209, the Xia emperor acknowledged Genghis Khan as overlord. In 1211, the Mongol Genghis Khan set about bringing the Jurchen (the founders of the Jin Dynasty) completely under his dominion, in order to prevent them from challenging the Mongols for territory and resources. The Mongol army reportedly crossed the Great Wall of China in 1213, and in 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing), forcing the Jin emperor Xuan Zong to move his capital south to Kaifeng. Genghis Khan's successor, Ogodei Khan, finally destroyed the Jin Dynasty in 1234.

Central Asia

Meanwhile, Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman tribe, had fled west and had usurped the Khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as Kara Kitay), the western allies that had decided to side with Genghis Khan. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and the Jin. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (roughly 20,000 soldiers) under a brilliant young general, Jebe (known as "The Arrow"), against Kuchlug. An internal revolt was incited by Mongol agents against Kuchlug, leaving the Naiman forces open for Jebe to overrun the country. Kuchlug's forces were defeated west of Kashgar; he was captured and executed and Kara-Khitan was annexed by Genghis Khan. By 1218, the Mongol Empire extended as far west as Lake Balkhash and adjoined Khwarizm, a Muslim state that reached to the Caspian Sea in the west and to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the south.

Middle East

In 1218, Genghis sent emissaries to an eastern province of Khwarizm with the intention of discussing possible trade with the Khwarizmian Empire. The governor of the province had the emissaries executed, and the Genghis Khan retaliated with an invasion force of 20 tumen (200,000 troops). The Mongol army quickly seized the town, relying on superior strategy and tactics, and executed the governor by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes as retribution for the insult.

At this point (1219), Genghis decided to extend Mongol control into the Muslim world. The Mongol army methodically marched through Khwarizm's main cities (Bukhara, Samarkand, and Balkh), and the shah, Muhammad, prepared to battle with them. However, he was outmaneuvered by the much swifter Mongol army and driven into extended retreat. In the end, the shah killed himself rather than surrender when he was cornered and by 1220, the Khwarizmian Empire was eradicated.

The Mongol armies then split into two component forces. Genghis Khan led a division on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India, while another contingent, led by his general Subedei, marched through the Caucasus and Russia. Neither campaign added territory to the empire, but they pillaged settlements and defeated any armies they met that did not acknowledge Genghis Khan as the rightful leader of the world. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia.

These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire and began to establish Genghis Khan's reputation as a bloodthirsty warrior.

Europe and Caucasus

While he was gathering his forces in Persia and Armenia, 40,000 of the Genghis Khan's troops pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan (see above in Central Asia). There Genghis destroyed Georgian crusaders, took a Genoese trade-fortress in Crimea, and stayed the winter near the Black Sea. While he was heading home, Genghis Khan met Prince Mstitslav of Kiev with his 80,000 troops; this encounter is presumed to be the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, which resulted in the destruction of both Prince Mstitslav and his army.

The final campaign

The vassal emperor of Western Xia had refused to take part in the war against the Khwarizm. While Genghis Khan was busy with the campaign in Persia, Western Xia and Jin had formed an alliance against the Mongols. In retaliation, the Mongol emperor prepared for war against their alliance.

By this time, his advancing age had led Genghis to make preparations for his death and to assure an orderly succession among his descendants; he selected his third son Ögedei as his successor and established the method of selection of subsequent Genghis Khans, specifying that they should come from his direct descendants. Meanwhile, he studied intelligence reports from Western Xia and Jin and readied a force of 180,000 troops for a new campaign.

File:Mongol Empire after Genghis.jpg

Genghis Khanates of Mongolian Empire: IlGenghis Khanate, Chagatai Genghis Khanate, Empire of the Great Genghis Khan (Yuan Dynasty), Golden Horde

In 1226, Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts (Western Xia) on the pretext that the Tanguts had received the Mongols' and they were seeking retribution for this betrayal. In February, he took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou and in the autumn, he took Xiliang-fu. One of Western Xia's generals challenged the Mongols for a battle near Helanshan (Helan means "great horse" in the northern dialect, shan means "mountain"). The Western Xia armies were soundly defeated. In November, the Genghis Khan laid siege to the Tangut city of Lingzhou and then crossed the Yellow River and defeated the Tangut relief army. Genghis reportedly saw five stars arranged in a line in the sky, which he took to be an omen of his victory.

In 1227, the Genghis Khan attacked the Tanguts' capital, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu in February, Xining province and Xindu-fu in March, and Deshun province in April. At Deshun, the Western Xia general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside of the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) for shelter from the severe summer.

The new Western Xia emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols. The Tanguts officially surrendered in 1227, after having ruled for 189 years, starting in 1038. In the end, Genghis Khan had the Tangut emperor and his family executed for their betrayal.

Death and burial

File:Mongol Empire at 1227.jpg

Mongolian Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death.

At his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire amongst his four sons. Jochi was the eldest, but he was already dead and his paternity was in doubt, so the most distant lands conquered by the Mongols, then southern Ruthenia, were divided among his sons Batu, leader of the Blue Horde, and Orda, leader of the White Horde. Chagatai was the next-eldest son of Genghis, but he was considered a hothead, and so was given Central Asia and northern Iran. Ogedei, third oldest, was made Great Genghis Khan and given China. Tolui, the youngest, was given the Mongol homeland as per Mongol custom.

On his deathbed in 1227, Genghis Khan outlined to his youngest son, Tolui, the plans that later would be used by his successors to complete the destruction of the Jin Empire.

In his last campaign leading the Mongol fight against Western Xia, Genghis Khan died on August 18, 1227. The reason for his death is uncertain. Many assume he fell off his horse, due to old age and physical wearing down; some contemporary observers even cited prophecies from his opponents. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts, but as of today the truth is unclear.

It is alleged that Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Hentiy aymag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon river. The funeral escort killed anyone and anything that strayed across their path to his burial, so as not to reveal where he was finally laid to rest. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, but not his burial site. As of October 6, 2004, there has been an alleged discovery of "Genghis Khan's palace" that makes a discovery of his burial site more likely. In folklore it is said that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find and/or his grave was stamped over by many horses.

Family

Main article: Family tree of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan's empress was Borte, his childhood friend that his father left Temujin with her and her family when he was 9. Borte gave birth to the following four sons of Genghis Khan:

Jochi is not completely certain to be a biological child of Genghis Khan, because he was born soon after Borte was freed from her captors. All 4 children of Genghis Khan held the title of Genghis Khan by controlling the Genghis Khanates after Genghis Khan's death as it was Genghis Khan's wish. All four children took part in the Genghis Khan's campaign in one way or another. Ogedei was proclaimed Great Genghis Khan by directly succeeding the Genghis Khan.

Public perceptions

Genghis is an extremely polarizing figure to many. In the West and the Middle East, the perception of Genghis Khan is negative due to the destruction brought about by his armies. While those in the East acknowledge this, they nonetheless admire his superior military command and historical legacy. On the other hand, in the Middle East, people have mixed views about Genghis Khan and his descendants because their armies conquered and destroyed Baghdad; on the other hand, some Mongol armies eventually converted to Islam and adopted its way of life, because the religious tolerance facilitated cultural exchange and assimilation. Many scholars and scientists, depending heavily on their nationality, consider Mongols as some of the greatest builders and destroyers.

Views toward Genghis Khan in the modern day People's Republic of China are ambivalent, with current Chinese historians seeing him as neither strongly positive or negative. While acknowledging the vast amount of damage the Genghis Khan caused, his reputation is somewhat redeemed by the fact that he would set into motion events which would later end the non-Han dynasties of the north and the Han south divisions of China that had begun during the Song Dynasty.

Character of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan's personality and character were doubtless molded by the many hardships he faced when he was young and during the time that it took to unify the Mongol nation, when he was around 40 years old. He is seen as a very curious learner of new ideas from different places, a man who perceived both the worthwhile and the less valuable in foreign ideas. Genghis Khan fully supported the Mongol people's nomadic way of life and their beliefs. He seemed to become increasingly aware of the consequences of numerous victories and expansion of the Mongol dominion, including the possibility that succeeding generations might choose to live a sedentary lifestyle. According to quotations attributed to him in his later years, he urged future leaders to follow the yasaq teachings, and refrain from surrounding themselves with wealth and pleasure. As has been the case in other empires, however, the code of simplicity and restraint in lifestyle eventually gave way to an appreciation of the luxury made possible by the empire's power.

He was firm believer of honesty and loyalty from all subjects and even an enemy soldier's loyalty to his leader. He encouraged and inspired people that worked hard and made sure his wealth from conquests were distributed to those that worked hard to get it. He seemed to be a firm believer in gathering good intelligence and saw what motivated people to do what they are doing. He seemed to be a good learner and adopting new technologies and ideas from different people for Mongol advancement. He certainly seemed to believe that he was the rightful ruler of the World in terms of bringing the Mongol tribes and other states that he deemed to unify.

Legacy

Later expansion of empire and its costs

Main article: Mongolian Empire

Genghis Khan's successors expanded the empire even further, into south China, Russia, Iraq, Korea, and Tibet. The Mongols eventually conquered Poland and Hungary under Batu Genghis Khan's rule, and (with varying degrees of success) Syria, Japan, and Vietnam. The European expansion came to halt when high-ranking members of Mongols returned to modern day Mongolia to participate in selection of the next great Genghis Khan. The Mongols might have been ready to conquer all of Europe, having conquered Poland and Hungary in a month. The Mongolian Empire reached its height under Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Genghis Khan, but broke apart into separate and less powerful Genghis Khanates shortly afterward.

At its height, the Mongolian Empire stretched from Southeast Asia to Europe, covering 35 million square kilometers (13.8 million square miles), little less than the British Empire with its 14.1 million square miles, or 36 million square kilometers. According to some sources, the empire encompassed almost 50% of the world population and included the most advanced and populous nations of that time; China and many of the main contemporary states of the Islamic world in Iraq, Persia, and Asia Minor. It holds the record for the longest continuous landmass controlled by any empire in history.

It can't be denied that Genghis Khan's waging of war was characterized by wholesale destruction on unprecedented scale and radically changed the demographic situation in Asia. According to the works of Iranian historian Rashid-ad-Din Fadl Allah, Mongols killed over 70,000 people in Merv and more than a million in Nishapur. China suffered a drastic decline in population. Before the Mongol invasion, China had about 100 million inhabitants; after the complete conquest in 1279, the census in 1300 showed it to have roughly 60 million people. This does not, of course, mean that Genghis Khan's men were directly responsible for the deaths of 40 million people but it does give a sense of the ferocity of the onslaught. Historical bias might have also played role in these numbers (See Historical misrepresentations).

Tamerlane based much of his early legitimacy on a supposed lineage descending from Genghis.

Mongolia as a country

In recent times, Genghis Khan has become a symbol for Mongolia's attempts to regain its identity after many long years of Communism under Russia. Genghis Khan's face appears on Mongolian bank notes and vodka labels. Later Mongol Genghis Khans encouraged the people to even worship Genghis Khan as a religious entity throughout the empire. Without Genghis Khan, there would seem to be no Mongolia, as the Mongolian Empire consistently shrank from what was built by Genghis Khan when he was titled in 1206.

A recent genetic survey (Zerjal et al. 2003, pdf of paper) found a cluster of Y chromosome variants in 1/12 of the men in the area of the Mongolian Empire, and 1/200 of men worldwide. The age of the cluster, estimated from the mutation rate, places its origin around the time of Genghis Khan, and it is especially common among the Hazara people, who claim to be descended from Genghis Khan (a claim traditionally rejected by most scientists because it was assumed to be local folklore). From this genetic evidence it is popularly reasoned that over 0.5% of the world's population (as the study was only able to cover direct male descendants) is descended from Genghis Khan, although there is no direct evidence to support this claim and modern science doesn't favor this assumption.

He is remembered for his destruction, strong willpower, persuasiveness, and power, but in Eastern Asia also for his achievements as a unifying, even cosmopolitan ruler, who nonetheless valued his Mongol identity. He is popularly considered a enigmatic figure to non-Mongols; however his tactical and military talents among non-Mongols rate highly.

Historical biases

Most of the historical record about Genghis Khan and Mongols in general are recorded from the viewpoint of the victims of Genghis Khan. So there has been consistent misconceptions and biased truths to the actual losses and historical records about the Genghis Khan more towards the negative. There has been tremendous exaggeration of assaults, barbarism, and cost of lives about Genghis Khan and his descendants.

The Secret History of the Mongols is the original Mongol literature that looks at the Genghis Khan from the Mongols' viewpoint.

External links

References

Lister, R. P. Genghis Khan. Cooper Square Press, 1969. ISBN 0-8154-1052-2.
"Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Genghis Khan and the Mongols. October 12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
"Mongol Arms". Mongol Arms. June 24. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, 2004.
Zerjal, Tatiana, Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva GerelsaiGenghis Khan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721
Man, John. Genghis Khan -- Life, Death and Resurrection. Bantam Press, 2004. ISBN 0-553-81498-2.

Notes

Note 1: There are many theories for the origins of Genghis Khan's title. One theory places the etymology as stemming from a palatalised version of the Turkish word tenggiz, meaning "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". Lake Baikal was referred to as tenggiz by the Mongols, however it seems like that if they had meant to call Genghis Khan tenggiz they could very well have said (and written) "Tenggiz Khan", which they did not. Zhèng (Chinese: 正, pron. "jung" in English) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which was then modified by later scribes in India or Persia to read as "Genghis". Likely, contemporary Mongols would have pronounced the word more like "Chinggis". See R.P. Lister, referenced above, for further reading.

Preceded by:
None

Great Khan of Mongolian Empire
1206–1227

Followed by:
Ogedei Khan