Panavia Tornado
Template:Infobox Aircraft The Panavia Tornado is a family of twin-engine fighters, which was jointly developed by the United Kingdom, Germany and Italy. There are three primary versions of the Tornado; the Tornado IDS (Interdictor/Strike) fighter-bomber, the suppression of enemy air defences Tornado ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) and the Tornado ADV (Air Defence Variant) interceptor. It is one of the world's most sophisticated and capable interdiction and attack aircraft, with a large payload, long range and high survivability.
Developed and built by Panavia, a tri-national consortium consisting of British Aerospace (then the British Aircraft Corporation), MBB of Germany, and Alenia Aeronautica of Italy, the Tornado first flew on August 14 1974, and saw action with the RAF and AMI (Italian Air Force) in the Gulf War. International co-operation continued after its entry into service within the Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment, a tri-nation training and evaluation unit operating from RAF Cottesmore, England. Including all variants, 992 aircraft were built for the three partner nations and Saudi Arabia.
Development
During the 1960s, aeronautical designers looked to variable geometry designs to gain the manoeuvrability and efficient cruise of straight wings with the speed of swept-wing designs. Britain and France initiated the AFVG (Anglo French Variable Geometry) project in 1965, which ended with French withdrawal in 1967. In 1968, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, and Canada formed a working group to examine replacements for the F-104 Starfighter, initially called the Multi Role Aircraft (MRA), and later called the Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA). Britain joined the MRCA group in 1968, and a memorandum of agreement was drafted between Britain, Germany, and Italy.
The program was intended to produce a single-seat replacement for the F-104G, and a two-seat strike fighter for Britain and Germany. Canada and Belgium pulled out in 1969. The four remaining partner nations - United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands, formed Panavia Aircraft GmbH on 26 March, 1969, though the Netherlands would pull out in 1970. The United Kingdom and Germany each had a 42.5% stake, with the remaining 15% going to Italy. The scope of work for production was also agreed upon - the front fuselage and tail assembly in the UK, the center fuselage in Germany, and the wings in Italy. A separate multinational company, Turbo Union, was formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft, with ownership similarly split 40% Rolls-Royce, 40% MTU, and 20% FIAT.
At the conclusion of the project definition phase in May 1970, the concepts were reduced to two designs; a single seat Panavia 100 which Germany initially preferred, and the twin seat Panavia 200 which the RAF preferred and which would become the Tornado. In September 1971 the three governments signed an Intention to Proceed (ITP) document. At this point, the aircraft was intended solely for the low-level strike mission. The RAF decided it needed an air defence fighter, and initiated the F2 variant. Though seriously flawed, its shortcomings were quickly corrected for the F3.
The contract for the Batch 1 aircraft was signed on 29 July 1976. The first aircraft were delivered to the RAF and Luftwaffe on 5 June and 6 June 1979 respectively. The first Italian Tornado was delivered on 25 September 1981. On 29 January 1981 the Tri-national Tornado Training Establishment (TTTE) officially opened at RAF Cottesmore.
Production ended in 1998; The last aircraft was completed by British Aerospace on 24 September, a RSAF IDS.
Design
The Tornado was originally designed as a low-level supersonic ground attack bomber, capable of taking off and landing in short distances. This requires good high-speed and low-speed flying characteristics. In general, an aircraft which is designed to fly at high speeds usually has poor low-speed characteristics. In order to achieve the desired high-speed performance, an aircraft has a highly swept or ‘delta’ wing platform. However, these wing designs are very inefficient at low speeds where unswept wing planforms are required. In order for an aircraft to be operated efficiently at both high and low speeds, variable wing sweep is a desirable feature; this was incorporated into the Tornado design.
When the wings are swept back, the Tornado IDS increases its high-speed low-level capability by reducing drag. When sweeping, the wings partially slide into the fuselage, reducing the exposed wing area. This gives the aircraft a low gust response in turbulent low-level winds. This not only makes flight much more comfortable for the aircrew but makes the aircraft a more stable platform from which to aim and deliver unguided weapons at low level.
The aircraft was designed to be land-based and operate from large airfields that were considered to be vulnerable to aerial attack. Therefore, during the development of the aircraft, short field landing capability was considered essential in order to enable the aircraft to operate from short strips on potentially damaged runways and taxiways. With the wings swept fully forwards the Tornado IDS generates greater lift because of the increased exposed wing area and the utility of full-span flaps and slats. This gives greater lift at lower speeds, reducing the minimum landing speed required and therefore giving shorter landing distances.
In general, when the pilot wants to fly at low speed, they sweep the wings forward (through a selection lever in the cockpit) to maximise lift, and when flying faster they sweep the wings further back. The Tornado GR4 flies at one of 3 levels of wing sweep: 25, 45 and 67 degrees of sweep. There is a corresponding speed range that is appropriate for each level of wing sweep; these change with the configuration of stores on the aircraft, as they directly affect the lift and drag characteristics.
Operational history
German Air Force
The prototype model made its first flight on 14 August 1974 from Manching airbase in what was then West Germany. The first service delivery was made on 27 July 1979, with deliveries totaling 247 IDS variants, including 35 special ECR. The Deutsche Marine also received 112 IDS variants [1]. German Tornados undertook NATO combat operations during the Kosovo War, the first combat operation for the Luftwaffe since World War II. British and Italian IDSs also participated.
Beginning in 2000 German RECCE, IDS and ECR Tornadoes received the ASSTA 1 Upgrade.
In 2007, a detachment of 6 Tornados of the Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann" (51st reconnaissance squadron) deployed to Mazar-i-Sharif, Northern Afghanistan, to support NATO forces. [2]
Italian Air Force
The first Italian prototype made its maiden flight on 5 December 1975 from Turin, Italy. The Aeronautica Militare received 100 Tornado IDS (15 were later converted in ECR version). They took part in the first Gulf war (1991), losing one plane to AAA, and in 1999 during the Kosovo war with IDS for bombing and ECR for suppression of enemy A.A. radars role (115 HARM missiles were launched by A.M.), there is an ongoing Italian program for improve the Tornado's capabilities. For 10 years the Italian Airforce used as gap-filler (between Starfighter F-104 and the introduction of EF-2000) 24 Tornado ADV, leased from the Royal Air Force.
Royal Air Force
The first British prototype made its maiden flight on 30 October 1974. On 11 July 1985 the RAF reconnaissance version (GR1A) made its maiden flight. RAF Tornado GR1s were used during the Gulf War, Operation Desert Fox and the Kosovo War.
For the Gulf War (Operation Granby), the ALARM missile and TIALD pod were rushed into service for RAF IDSs. Several aircraft were lost during low-level strike missions (e.g. using the JP233 runway-denial weapon) which were particularly vulnerable to anti-aircraft artillery fire and shoulder-launched surface-to-air missiles.
On 14 February 1994 the RAF received the first GR.1B maritime strike aircraft.
As early as May 1984 the UK Ministry of Defence began studies for the first Tornado upgrade project, however the project stalled. In March 1993 a new Mid-Life Upgrade (MLU) project was launched. On 29 May the first GR.4 development aircraft made its maiden flight. On 29 July 1994 the UK signed a contract for MLU of GR1/GR1A/GR1Bs to GR.4/GR.4A standard. The first flight of an upgraded GR4 was on 4 April 1997, with the first delivery to the RAF occurring on 31 October. The GR4 entered front line service on 28 April 1998. The Tornado GR4 made its operational debut in patrols during Operation Southern Watch. The aircraft flew from Ali Al Salem in Kuwait, and patrolled a large part of southern Iraq. Several times bombs were dropped when the aircraft were fired upon by Iraqi ground defences.
The GR4 version's full wartime debut came in Operation Telic, the British part of the invasion of Iraq in 2003. The aircraft, according to all indications in the public domain, performed well. The campaign in Iraq marked a number of firsts for the aircraft. No. 617 Squadron used the Storm Shadow Missile for the first time, and enhanced Paveway smart bombs were used to attack runways. On 23 March 2003 a Tornado GR4 was lost to friendly fire when it was engaged and shot down by a U.S. Patriot missile battery. Both crew members were killed.
Royal Saudi Air Force
On September 25, 1985, UK and Saudi Arabia signed the Al Yamamah I contract including, amongst other things, the sale of 48 IDS and 24 ADV model Tornados. The first flight of a RSAF Tornado IDS was on March 26, 1986, and the first Saudi ADV was delivered on February 9, 1989. Saudi Tornados undertook operations during the Gulf War. In June 1993 the Al Yamamah II contract was signed, the main element of which was 48 additional IDSs.
In September 2006 it was reported that the Saudi government signed a contract worth £2.5 billion ($4.7 billion) with BAE Systems to upgrade possibly 80 aircraft in the Saudi Air Force fleet which it wants to keep until 2020.
Variants
The Tornado is cleared to carry almost all the air-launched weapons in the NATO inventory, including cluster bombs, anti-runway munitions, and nuclear weapons. The aircraft also has a limited air-to-air capability with Sidewinder AAMs. RAF Tornadoes are designated by the GR series. The GR1 was delivered in a dark sea-grey/dark-green wraparound camouflage, but this was changed to dark grey during the late 1990s. In operations over Iraq some GR1s received a sandy "pink" scheme. GR4s participating in the 2003 Iraq War were painted in a light grey scheme. German Navy examples normally sported a distinctive black/blue/gunmetal grey camouflage pattern.
RAF Tornado GR.1
The RAF Tornado GR.1 was the first generation version of the Panavia Tornado strike aircraft of the Royal Air Force. The first of 228 GR1s was delivered on June 5 1979 and the type entered service in the early 1980s. 142 aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard from 1997 to 2002, after which time the GR.1 designation was abandoned.
The Tornado was designed for ultra-low-level penetration strikes on Warsaw Pact targets in Europe using both conventional and tactical nuclear weapons, e.g WE.177. However, the end of the Cold War precluded it from ever seeing that use. A major feature of the GR.1 was its terrain-following radar, which allowed all-weather hands-off low-level flight, but current doctrine eschews extreme low-level flight and relies on inertial navigation with GPS updates rather than TFS. The RAF Tornado IDS aircraft have a Laser Range Finder and Marked Target Seeker (LRMTS) under the fuselage on the starboard side, just forward of the nose landing gear in an aerodynamic fairing. This system consists of a laser that can be used to measure the slant range of a point on the ground relative to the aircraft. This information is then used by the aircraft's avionics to compute targeting information for the crew. The LRMTS laser sensor can also be used to receive reflected laser energy from a third-party laser, allowing the crew to find targets that have been marked by troops on the ground or another aircraft. The laser cannot be used for guiding laser-guided bombs. IDS aircraft supplied to Italy, Germany and the Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment do not have the LRMTS system, but the aircraft supplied to the Royal Saudi Air Force do.
Its actual combat debut came in 1991 in the Gulf War. Nearly 60 GR1s were deployed by the United Kingdom to air bases at Muharraq (Bahrain), Tabuk and Dhahran in Saudi Arabia[3]. In the early stages of Operation Granby RAF Tornado GR.1s were used to target Iraqi military airfields using 1000 lb (450 kg)unguided bombs in loft-bombing attacks and the JP233 runway denial weapon. Six RAF Tornados were lost, as was one Italian Tornado. Of the RAF aircraft, 4 were lost while delivering unguided bombs, one was lost after delivering JP233, and one was lost trying to deliver laser-guided bombs[4] . Following the end of the initial phase of the war, the GR.1s were switched to medium level strike missions. However they lacked both equipment and training to complete these missions properly. In an emergency deployment, the UK sent out a detachment of Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft equipped with the Pave Spike laser designator, allowing the GR.1s to drop precision guided weapons. A further crash program was initiated which saw some GR.1s fitted with the TIALD system. In the aftermath of the war, British forces remained in the Gulf, with GR1s being based at Ali Al Salem airbase in Kuwait for operations over the southern no fly zone. GR.1s based there took part in Operation Desert Fox in 1998.
1999 saw further action for the GR.1 in the Kosovo War. Aircraft operated from RAF Bruggen in Germany during the first part of the war, flying precision strike missions. They later moved to a base on Corsica shortly before the war ended to bring them closer to the combat zone.
Following the Kosovo War, the GR.1 was phased out as more and more aircraft were upgraded to the GR.4 standard. The final GR.1 was upgraded in 2003 and returned to the RAF on 10 June. [5]
RAF Tornado GR.1B
The Tornado GR.1B was a specialised anti-shipping variant of the RAF Tornado GR.1. Based in Scotland at RAF Lossiemouth, they replaced the Blackburn Buccaneer in the anti-shipping role, delivering the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile. It did not have the ability to track shipping with its radar and relied on the missile's seeker for target acquisition.
When the Tornado GR.1 strike aircraft of the Royal Air Force were updated to the GR.4 standard in the late 1990s there was no corresponding GR.4B version of the GR.4. It was judged that a specialised anti-shipping variant of the aircraft was no longer needed as the threat from surface warships the GR.1B was designed to operate against had decreased, and also because the Sea Eagle missile was coming towards the end of its shelf-life and there were no plans to replace it due to the cost of doing so.
RAF Tornado GR.4
As early as 1984 the UK Ministry of Defence began studies of a Mid-Life Update (MLU) of the aircraft to rectify shortcomings of the GR.1. This update, to Tornado GR.4 standard would improve capability in the medium level role while maintaining the Tornado's exceptional low-level penetration capability. The GR.4 upgrade was not approved until 1994, after it had been revised to include lessons learned from the GR.1's performance in the 1991 Gulf War. One major change was the move from low level penetration to medium level attacks, while maintaining the low level capability. The contracts were signed with British Aerospace (later BAE Systems) in 1994 for the upgrade of 142 GR.1s to GR.4 standard, work began in 1996 and was finished in 2003.
Upgrades to the more than twenty-year old aircraft included FLIR (Forward-Looking InfraRed), a wide-angle HUD (Heads-Up Display), improved cockpit displays, NVG (Night Vision Goggles) capabilities, new avionics and weapons systems, updated computer systems, and a Global Positioning System receiver. The updated weapons system allowed integration of the latest offensive weapons, for example the Storm Shadow and Brimstone missiles and reconnaissance equipment such as the RAPTOR pod. As of late 2006, the GR4 fleet is being fitted with a new 12.8-inch Multi-function display in the rear cockpit to replace the circular radar projected map display: The BAE Systems Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System (TARDIS) is an Active-matrix liquid crystal display.[6] [7] TARDIS is currently being fitted to aircraft of the Fast Jet and Weapons Operational Evaluation Unit before being fitted to all GR4 aircraft.
RAF Tornado GR.1A/GR.4A
The GR.1A was a reconnaissance variant of the RAF IDS. It is also in service with the Saudi Air Force. With the upgrade of the GR.1 to GR.4 standard, similarly the GR.1A became the GR.4A. The GR.4A is equipped with the internally mounted TIRRS (Tornado Infra-Red Reconnaissance System), one on each side of the fuselage and a single IRLS (Infra-Red LineScan) reconnaissance sensor mounted on the underside of the fuselage. The sensor package replaced the 27 mm cannon. The RAF ordered 30 airframes, either as rebuilds of GR.1's or as new airframes and 25 aircraft were upgraded to GR.4A standard. The GR.4A retains almost all of the offensive capabilities of the GR.4. As RAPTOR becomes the principal reconnaissance sensor of Tornado in RAF service, TIRRS will be phased out. To this end, the RAF's Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at RAF Marham which comprises II Squadron and 13 Squadron now fly both GR.4A and GR.4 airframes, since the sensors specific to the GR4A are not essential to the reconnaissance role.
Luftwaffe IDS
The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) received 212 Tornado IDSs. On January 13 2004 the then German Defence Minister Peter Struck announced major changes to the German armed forces. A major part of this announcement is the plan to cut the German fighter fleet from 426 in early 2004 to 265 by 2015. Assuming the full German order for 180 Eurofighter Typhoons is fulfilled, this will see the Tornado force reduced to 85. [8]
Marineflieger IDS
The German Navy's air wing (Marineflieger) received 112 Tornado IDSs. In late 2004 the last Tornado unit was disbanded. The maritime combat role has been assumed by the Luftwaffe which has upgraded a unit of its Tornados to carry the Cormorant and AGM-88 HARM missiles.
Aeronautica Militare IDS
The Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare Italiana) received 100 Tornado IDS. 57 were operational as of July 2004. In July 2002 Italy signed a contract with NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management Agency (NETMA) and the Panavia partner companies for the initial upgrade of 18 IDSs. Alenia Aeronautica is responsible for the upgrade, the first of which was completed in November 2003. [9] The first phase of the upgrade will see a modernised avionics suite, new digital radios, a SATCOM capability and new weapons capabilities for the carriage of Joint Direct Attack Munitions, Raytheon Enhanced Paveway III laser guided bombs and the MBDA Storm Shadow. A further upgrade is being developed by Alenia which will improve mission capabilities, a new Defence Aids Sub-System (DASS) and a MIDS communications capability. The decision of whether or not to upgrade the whole fleet will follow. [10]
Tornado ECR
Operated by Germany and Italy, the ECR is an IDS variant devoted to SEAD missions. It was first delivered on May 21 1990. The ECR is equipped with an emitter-locator system (ELS) which is designed to locate enemy radar sites. The ECR is equipped with the AGM-88 HARM. The Luftwaffe's 35 ECRs were delivered new, while Italy received 16 converted IDSs. German ECRs were originally equipped with a Honeywell infra-red imaging systems for reconnaissance, however operational experience lead to the removal of this system; It was considered impractical for one aircraft to be tasked with both SEAD and reconnaissance. [11]
Italian ECRs (IT-ECR) differ from the Luftwaffe aircraft in that they were never equipped with a reconnaissance capability and as IDS conversion they are equipped with RB199 Mk.103 engines. Luftwaffe ECRs are equipped with RB199 Mk.105 which have a slightly higher thrust rating. The first IT-ECR was delivered on 27 February 1998 and formally accepted on 7 April. [12]
The RAF and RSAF IDS carry ALARM missiles in this role.
Units
| Unit | Base | Version | Status | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AMI | ||||
| 102° Gruppo, 6° Stormo | Ghedi | IDS | Active | |
| 154° Gruppo, 6° Stormo | Ghedi | IDS | Active | |
| 156° Gruppo C.B., 36° Stormo | Gioia del Colle | IDS | Active | |
| XII° Gruppo, 36° Stormo | Gioia del Colle | F.3 | Inactive | 1995-2004 |
| 155° Gruppo E.T.S., 50° Stormo | San Damiano | ECR | Active | |
| 53° Stormo | ECR | Inactive | ||
| Deutsche Marine | ||||
| Marinefliegergeschwader 1 | Jagel | Disbanded | Disbanded 1993 | |
| Marinefliegergeschwader 2 | Eggebek | Disbanded | Disbanded 2005 | |
| Luftwaffe | ||||
| Jagdbombergeschwader 31 "Boelcke" | Nörvenich | IDS | Active | 34 aircraft, Slated for transition to Eurofighter in 2009 |
| Jagdbombergeschwader 32 | Lagerlechfeld | ECR | Active | 34 aircraft, Receives ASSTA 2 Upgrade, remains in service |
| Jagdbombergeschwader 33 | Büchel | IDS | Active | 36 aircraft, Slated for transition to Eurofighter in 2012 |
| Jagdbombergeschwader 34 "Allgäu" | Memmingen | Disbanded | Disbanded 2003 | |
| Jagdbombergeschwader 38 "Friesland" | Jever | Disbanded | Disbanded 2005 | |
| Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann" | Jagel/Schleswig | IDS | Active | 46 aircraft, Receives ASSTA 2 Upgrade, remains in service |
| RAF | ||||
| No. 2 Squadron | Marham | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. 5 Squadron | Coningsby | F.3 | Disbanded | 1987-2003 |
| No. 11 Squadron | Leeming | F.3 | Disbanded | 1988-2005 |
| No. 23 Squadron | Leeming | F.3 | Disbanded | 1988-1994 |
| No. 29 Squadron | Coningsby | F.3 | Disbanded | 1987-1998 |
| No. 9 Squadron | Marham | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. 12 Squadron | Lossiemouth | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. 13 Squadron | Marham | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. 14 Squadron | Lossiemouth | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. 25 Squadron | Leeming | F.3 | Active | 16 aircraft |
| No. 31 Squadron | Marham | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. 43 Squadron | Leuchars | F.3 | Active | 16 aircraft |
| No. 56 (Reserve) Squadron | RAF Leuchars | F.3 | Reserve | 16 aircraft. F3 Operational Conversion Unit |
| No. 111 Squadron | Leuchars | F.3 | Active | 16 aircraft |
| No. 1435 Flight | Mount Pleasant | F.3 | Active | 4 aircraft, based in the Falklands |
| No. 617 Squadron | Lossiemouth | GR.4/4A | Active | 12 aircraft |
| No. XV (Reserve) Squadron | Lossiemouth | GR.4 | Reserve | 26 aircraft. GR4 Operational Conversion Unit |
| Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment | Cottesmore | IDS, GR1 | Disbanded | |
| Royal Saudi Air Force | ||||
| KAAB | IDS | Active | 96 IDS | |
Specifications (Tornado GR.4 (IDS))
General characteristics
- Crew: 2
Performance
- Thrust/weight: 0.55
Armament
- 2x 27 mm Mauser BK-27 cannon with 180 rounds each
- Four fuselage pylons and four swivelling underwing pylons for a maximum of 9000 kg (19,800 lb) of weapons, fuel, and ECM pods, inner wing pylons have shoulder rails for two AIM-9 Sidewinder or AIM-132 ASRAAM air-to-air self-defence missiles. A wide variety of air-to-ground weapons can be carried including Wasp ASM, Kormoran anti-ship missiles, BAe Sea Eagle anti-ship missiles, AGM-65 Maverick ASM, BAe ALARM anti-radiation missile, LAU-51A and LR-25 rocket pods, napalm bombs, retarded bombs, BL755 cluster bombs, Paveway series laser-guided bombs, and HOPE/HOSBO series guided glide bombs, MW-1 munitions dispenser, JP233 munitions dispenser, Storm Shadow, Brimstone, Taurus missile, can be equipped to carry B61 and WE.177 nuclear bombs.
- RAPTOR Reconnaissance pod, TIALD laser designator
- Rafael Lightening III targeting pod has replaced TIALD 500 during the UK RAF's operations in Iraq.
References
- ^ http://www.warbirdsresourcegroup.org/LRG/tornado.html
- ^ [1]
- ^ "RAF Tornado Aircraft Deployments in Operation Granby". Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 2006-10-27.
- ^ "Statement on the Loss of RAF Tornado Aircraft in Combat During the Conduct of Air Operations against Iraq". Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 2006-10-27.
- ^ "BAE Systems Investor Brief - June 2003". BAE Systems plc. 2003-06-30. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
- ^ "BAE Systems Virtual News Room - 9th February 2004". BAE Systems plc. 2003-06-30. Retrieved 2006-10-27.
- ^ "Wind River Blog Network - 25th October 2006". 2006-10-25. Retrieved 2006-10-27.
- ^ "Germany Announces Major Armed Forces Cuts". Air Forces Monthly. Key Publising. March 2004. p. 8.
{{cite news}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ "First Italian MLU Tornado". Air Forces Monthly. Key Publising. February 2004. p. 7.
{{cite news}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ "First Upgraded Italian Tornado on show". Air Forces Monthly. Key Publishing. September 2004. p. 18.
{{cite news}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Davies, Steve (March 2003). "German SEAD: The Tornado ECRs of JaBoG 32". Air Forces Monthly. Key Publishing. p. 32.
{{cite news}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ "First Tornado IT-ECR for 50° Stormo". Air Forces Monthly. Key Publishing. June 1998.
{{cite news}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help)
External links
Related content
Related development
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Related lists