Bologna Process
The purpose of the Bologna process (or Bologna accords) is to create the European higher education area by making academic degree standards and quality assurance standards more comparable and compatible throughout Europe. It is named after the place it was proposed, the University of Bologna with the signing, in 1999, of the Bologna declaration by ministers of education from 29 European countries in the Italian city of Bologna. This was opened up to other countries signatory to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, and further governmental meetings have been held in Prague (2001), Berlin (2003), Bergen (2005) and London in Spring 2007.
Before the signing of the Bologna declaration, the Magna Carta Universitatum had been issued at a meeting of university rectors celebrating the 900th anniversary of the University of Bologna - and thus of European universities - in 1988. One year before the Bologna declaration, education ministers Claude Allegre (France), Jürgen Rüttgers (Germany), Luigi Berlinguer (Italy) and the Baroness Blackstone (UK) signed the Sorbonne declaration in Paris 1998, committing themselves to "harmonising the architecture of the European Higher Education system". French officials in particular therefore often refer to the La Sorbonne/Bologna process.
The Council of Europe and UNESCO have jointly issued the Lisbon recognition convention on recognition of academic qualifications as part of the process, which has been ratified by the majority of the countries party to the Bologna process.
Framework
The basic framework adopted is of three cycles of higher education qualification. As outlined in the Bergen Declaration[1] of 2005, the cycles are defined in terms of qualifications and ECTS credits:
- 1st cycle: typically 180−240 ECTS credits, usually awarding a Bachelor's degree.
- 2nd cycle: typically 90−120 ECTS credits (a minimum of 60 on 2nd-cycle level). Usually awarding a Master's degree.
- 3rd cycle: Doctoral degree. No ECTS range given.
In most cases, these will take 3, 2, and 3 years respectively to complete. The actual naming of the degrees may vary from country to country.
These levels are closer to the current model in the UK and Ireland than that in most of Continental Europe, where the model often is based on the Magister or diploma. In any case, program length tends to vary from country to country, and less often between institutions within a country.
Goals
The Bologna process was a major reform created with the aim of providing responses to issues such as the public responsibility for higher education and research, higher education governance, the social dimension of higher education and research and the values and roles of higher education and research in modern, globalized and increasingly complex societies with the most demanding qualification needs.
With the Bologna process implementation, higher education systems in European countries should be organized in such a way that:
- it is easy to move from one country to the other (within the European Higher Education Area) – for the purpose of further study or employment;
- the attractiveness of European higher education is increased so many people from non-European countries also come to study and/or work in Europe;
- the European Higher Education Area provides Europe with a broad, high quality and advanced knowledge base, and ensures the further development of Europe as a stable, peaceful and tolerant community benefiting from a cutting edge European Research Area;
- there will also be a greater convergence between the U.S. and Europe as European higher education adopts aspects of the American system.
Effects by State
Contrary to popular belief, the Bologna Process was not based on a European Union initiative. It constitutes an intergovernmental agreement, between both EU and non-EU countries. Therefore, it does not have the status of EU legislation. Also, as the Bologna Declaration is not a treaty or convention, there are no legal obligations for the signatory states. The (extent of) participation and cooperation is completely voluntarily. This can be regarded both as a positive and as a negative thing. On the one hand, one could say that this "bottom-up" voluntary convergence does justice to the sovereignty of the states, which is especially important in the field of education. On the other hand, the avoidance of EU structures can be regretted for democratic reasons. The Bologna Declaration can be said to be a deal done in a smoke-filled room, by governmental officials, without any participation of the European parliament. Also the involvement of the national parliaments has been limited.
Although the Bologna Declaration was created outside and without the EU institutions, the European Commission plays an inceasingly important role in the implementation of the Process. The Commission has supported several European projects (the Tuning project, the TEEP project) connected to quality assurance etc. Most countries do not currently fit the framework – instead they have their own time-honoured systems. The process will have many knock-on effects such as bilateral agreements between countries and institutions which recognise each others' degrees. However, the process is now moving away from a strict convergence in terms of time spent on qualifications, towards a competency-based system. The system will have an undergraduate and postgraduate division, with the bachelor degree in the former and the master and doctoral in the latter.
In mainland Europe five year plus first degrees are common, with some taking up to eight years not being unheard of. This leads to many not completing their studies; many of these countries are now introducing bachelor-level qualifications. This situation is changing rapidly as the Bologna Process is implemented.
Depending on the country and the development of its higher education system, some introduced ECTS, discussed their degree structures and qualifications, financing and management of higher education, mobility programmes etc. At the institutional level the reform involved higher education institutions, their faculties or departments, student and staff representatives and many other actors. The priorities varied from country to country and from institution to institution.
Austria
The situation in Austria is similar to that in Germany: the traditional "lowest" degrees are the Magister and the Diplom-Ingenieur, which can be obtained after at least four to six years of study. However, beginning with the year 2000, many curricula have already been converted into separate bachelor (Bakkalaureat, although this term will be replaced by Bachelor in most studies by 2007) and master (Magisterstudium) programmes, with nominal durations of six semesters (three years) and three to four semesters (1.5–2 years), respectively. With few exceptions (e.g. studies of human and veterinary medicine), all university curricula will be remodeled to this format within the next years.
Enrollment in a doctoral programme generally requires a master's level degree in a related field. The nominal duration of doctoral programmes is two or three years, but the actual time to graduation varies considerably and is generally longer than that.
Belgium
In Belgium the candidate's degree took 2 years (in some cases 3), with an additional 2 to 3 years (in some cases 4) to obtain a license. This has been replaced by an academic bachelor's degree of 3 years and a master's degree of 1 or 2 years (in some case 3 or even 4). The professional (non-academic) graduate degree has been replaced by a professional bachelor degree of 3 years.
Croatia
In Croatia, the implementation of the Bologna process started in the academic year 2005/2006. The existing academic degree granted with a diploma was transformed into a baccalaureus and the programmes were shortened from 4 years to around 3. The degree granted with a magisterij was mostly eliminated or transformed into a master's degree, achieved after 5 years of study. Medicine and medicine related studies still last 6 or 5 years. The degree of doktorat (PhD, dr.sc.) remains but it can be received after 3 more years, i.e. 8 years in total.
e.g. - 3 years (Bachelor or Baccalaureus/prvostupnik) + 2 years (Master or magistar) + 3 years (doctor of science or doktor znanosti).
Denmark
Before the adaptation to international standards, the lowest degree that could be obtained at universities in Denmark were equivalent to a Master degree (Kandidat). Officially, Bachelor's degrees has been introduced after 3 years university studies, but very few choose to stop at this stage, without the additional 2 years required to obtain a Masters degree. Various medium length (2-4 years) professional degrees have been adapted so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees (3½ years), and opposed to academic bachelor's degrees they are considered to be "valid" degrees.
Estonia
Since 2002 in Estonia all honours bachelors degree are three years (before 2001 enrollment 4 years), master's 2 and doctorates 4. The masters degree is always a postgraduate degree. Basically, there is no taught or achieved through research master's gradation.
Finland
In the Finnish pre-Bologna system, the higher education was strictly divided between the universities and polytechnics. In universities, the degrees were divided in most fields into a three-year degree kandidaatti, which was followed by the two-year upper degree maisteri. In these fields, the Bologna process causes no changes. The degrees retain their former domestic names but in English usage, Bachelor and Master are used to describe the degrees. In the field of engineering, the universities did not offer bachelor-level degrees, but only a 5½-year master's program (diplomi-insinööri). This program has now been divided into a three-year bachelor-level degree tekniikan kandidaatti and a two-year master-level degree diplomi-insinööri, for which the English names are Bachelor of Science (Eng) and Master of Science (Eng), respectively. A corresponding change has also been made in the military higher education, where the officer's degree was divided between a bachelor's and master's program. Only medicine retains its non-standard degree structure, where the Licentiate — higher than Master's, less extensive than Doctor of Medicine degree — serves as the basic degree. A six-year program of at least 360 ECTS credits leads directly to the degree Licenciate of Medicine (lääketieteen lisensiaatti). There is an intermediate title (but curiously, not an academic degree) of lääketieteen kandidaatti, and there is no Master's degree. Licentiates of Medicine may continue to Doctor's degree.
The degrees from polytechnics are considered Bachelor's degrees in international usage. However, in domestic usage, bachelors transferring from polytechnics to universities may be required a maximum of 60 ETCS of additional studies prior emabarking the master's level studies. In conjunction with Bologna process, the polytechnics have obtained the right to award master's degrees. However, such programs remain rather minor phenomenon. The polytechnic master's degree does not qualify for doctoral studies.
The Finnish postgraduate education retains its non-standard two-level degree structure. The Licenciate's degree (|lisensiaatti) may be undertaken after circa two years' postgraduate study. This degree requires the coursework of the doctoral degree but has much less stringent thesis requirements. The Doctor's degree, with a full dissertation, takes about four years to complete. Most Finnish universities encourage their post-graduate students to skip the intermediate licenciate degree.
France
In France the first qualification, called the baccalauréat, ends the secondary education and allows students to enter University. It is then followed by the Diplôme d'études universitaires générales or DEUG, which takes two years, followed by a third year, the licence. The licence is the equivalent of the UK BA. After the licence, students can choose to enter the maîtrise, which was a one-year research degree. The maîtrise may be followed by either a work-oriented one-year degree, the diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées or DESS, or a one-year research degree, the Diplôme d'études approfondies or DEA. The DEA is one year of preparation for a doctorate, and can be considered equivalent to a M. Phil.. After DEA, students may pursue a doctorat, which takes at least three years.
Higher education in France is also endorsed by higher education establishments dedicated to specific domains. As an example, the Diplome d'ingénieur is awarded to students realizing five years studies in state recognized Ecoles d'ingénieurs, especially the Grandes Ecoles. These degrees are usually preferred to university degrees due to the selection of students entering, in contrast to the fact that public universities are legally obliged to accept any students passing High School.
The baccalauréat and the doctorat status are unchanged in the new Bologna system, but the DEUG and the old licence are merged in a new, three-year, licence, as the maîtrise, the DESS and the DEA in a master of two years, which can be work-oriented (master professionnel) or research-oriented (master recherche). The Diplome d'ingenieur degree is still separated from the university degree but students owning such a degree may lawfully claim a Master degree as well.[1]
Germany
In Germany the process is already underway, many subjects of the natural sciences, humanities and social studies can be completed with a BA or BSc at an increasing number of universities. The Bachelor's degree in engineering can be a BSc or a BEng, with the BEng being awarded by Fachhochschulen/Polytechnics and the BSc by Universities and Engineering schools. The new postgraduate Master's degrees (MA, MSc and MEng) are seen as equivalent to the old five year plus first degrees Diplom (one subject, can be in all sciences) and Magister Artium (interdisciplinary, only in social and cultural sciences). Bachelor's degrees are seen as roughly equivalent to the old four year first degree Diplom (FH) from a Fachhochschule (or University of Applied Sciences). Bearing in mind that the Fachhochschule level is not comparable to the UK honours degree or to the French DEA (see below) because although the fourth year of the FH is used for a research project, it is a practical project, done on-the-job. Furthermore, the FH is outside the university system. German universities are research universities and include courses in all traditional departments through the Doktorat level, whereas the FH are teaching colleges for technical, business and applied social science subjects which have offered only one degree, the Diplom (FH). The number of old degree courses is declining and they will be replaced by the new degrees up until 2005 in some states or up until 2010 in all other German states.
Hungary
In Hungary, the Bologna system will be applied to those starting their university education in September 2006. From this year, only 108 majors will be available for selection (instead of more than 400 in the previous year), out of which six are exempt from the Bachelor vs. Master division: lawyer, physician, dentist, veterinary, pharmacist and architect.
According to the online poll of Felvi.hu, the National Tertiary Education Information Centre, 65% think it was unnecessary to adopt this system [2] (query date: 24-FEB-06). Its unpopularity first of all comes from the fact that the new system provides much less guarantee for students to get a practically useful Master's degree because many of them will be dismissed after the three years' Bachelor education. It's also not popular that students are supposed to take up more unrelated subjects in the first three years at several majors, due to the much more reduced number of majors.
- Source in Hungarian: [3]
Italy
Italy seems to fit the framework since the adoption, in 1999, of the so-called 3+2 system.
The first degree is the Laurea triennale that can be achieved after 3 years of studies.
Students can then complete 2 more years of specialization which lead to the Laurea Magistrale. The "Laurea Magistrale" corresponds to a Master's Degree, and gives acces to 3rd cycle programmes (doctorates). It should not be confused with Italian "Masters", less popular 2nd cycle degrees which do not give access to doctorates: "First Level Masters" can be pursued by those who hold at least a "Laurea triennale" degree, while "Second Level Masters" require a "Laurea Magistrale" before entry.
Exceptions to the 3+2 system are the unique cycle degrees: medicine (6 years, plus a postgraduate specialization), pharmacy, veterinary science, architecture and, in some universities, law (5 years).
The dottorato di ricerca (doctorate) requires 3 or 4 years of work.
Ireland
In Ireland most honours bachelors degree are three to four years with master's and doctorates being broadly similar to the UK. Ordinary bachelors degrees are also first cycle qualifications. The masters degree is always a postgraduate degree, either taught or achieved through research. The generic outcomes for Irish degrees are spelled out in the National Framework of Qualifications published in 2003.
Macedonia
Macedonia became a member of the Bologna Process in 2003, having started with the changes in the higher education system much earlier in 2000 when the Ministry of Education and Science passed the new Law on Higher Education. The Law requires universities to start introducing the ECTS and designing study and subject programs according to the principles of the Bologna process. The existing academic degree granted with a diploma was transformed into a baccalaureus and the programmes were shortened from 4 years to around 3. The degree granted with a magisterium is transformed into a master's degree, achieved after 5 years of study. Medicine and medicine related studies still last 6 or 5 years. The degree of doktorat (PhD, dr.sc.) remains but it can be received after 3 more years, i.e. 8 years in total. The implementation of the Bologna process/ ECTS on the Law Faculty "Iustinianus Primus"-Skopje: [www.pf.ukim.edu.mk]
e.g. - 3 years (Bachelor or Baccalaureus) + 2 years (Master) + 3 years (doctor of science or doktor na nauki).
The Netherlands
Bachelor (3 years) / Master (1 or 2 years) system. The old "HBO" (polytechnical education) has also moved to the Bachelor (generally 4 years) / Master (1 year) system, which has caused a lot of confusion, especially as to whether students can move from the polytechnical level to university level.
Previously there used to be a "propedeuse" (propaedeutics) (1 year) followed by three or four years of further studies to obtain a "doctoraal" degree (drs, ir or mr); not to be confused with the doctoral degree (dr) which furthermore requires the writing of a dissertation and may be comparable to a PhD.
Poland
Education in Poland starts at the age of 7 with 6 years of primary school (Polish Szkoła podstawowa). Next is the lower secondary level consists of 3 years in gymnasium (Gimnazjum), starting at age 13/14, ends with an exam). This is followed by upper secondary level, which has several alternatives, the most common being the 3 years in High School (Liceum) or 4 years Technikum. Both end with a maturity examination (matura, roughly equivalent to British A-levels examination), and may be followed by several forms of upper education. The Polish equivalent of an Associate's degree or a Bachelor's of Arts is a licencjat. The Polish equivalent of a Bachelor's of Science degree (given by a University) is licencjat, while in a Technical University one gets a title of Engineer (inżynier). Magister is the Polish equivalent of Master's degree. Doktor is the Polish equivalent of a Doctoral degree (Ph.D.).
Portugal
Due to the pan-European Bologna Process, after 2005 new licenciatura (licentiate) degrees were organized at both university and polytechnic institutions of Portugal - they are now a first study cycle (3 or 4 years depending on the course and institution) offered by Portuguese institutions of higher education, and are the only requirement for any applicant who wish to undertake the second study cycle which awards a master's degree. Some new Bologna courses are integrated 5-year programmes awarding a single master's degree (joint degree), a common practice in medicine and some other fields taught at the universities. In engineering, although the use of two separated cycles, only having the masters' degree (2nd cycle of study) one can be a full chartered engineer. The new master's degrees attained after 5 or 6 years of successful study, corresponds to the same time duration of many old undergraduate degrees known as licenciatura, while the new licenciatura attained after 3 or 4 years of successful study corresponds to the time duration of the old bacharelato (a discontinued degree awarded by polytechnics, in use between the 1970s and early 2000s) or the old 4-year licenciatura (awarded by the universities which awarded also 5 or 6-year licenciatura degrees depending on the course). Both the old and new master's degrees are the first graduate degree before a doctorate, and both the old and new licenciatura degrees are undergraduate degrees. Before the changes, the licenciatura diploma (4 to 6-year course) was required for those applicants who wished to undertake (the old) master's and/or doctorate programs but admission were only allowed for licenciatura degree owners with grades over 14 (out of 20). After the changes introduced by the Bologna process, the master's degree is conferred at the end of a programme roughly equivalent in time duration to many old licenciatura programmes. However, the Bologna process was elaborated in order to attain an improved education system based on the development of competences rather than on the transmission of knowledge. Its goal was the development of a reformed and modernized system of easily readable and comparable degrees, aimed to simplify comparison between qualifications across Europe through a total reorganisation of curricula and teaching methods in every new cycle of study. The flexibility and transparency provided is oriented to enable students to have their qualifications recognised more widely, facilitating freedom of movement around a more transparent EHEA (European Higher Education Area) which is based on two main cycles: undergraduate (1st cycle of study) and graduate (2nd cycle of study); as well as providing postgraduate degrees (3rd cycle of study) for advanced applicants aiming the doctorate degree.
As of 2007, critics allege that this was not achieved as many institutions relabeled their old licenciatura as the new master's without making any substantial alteration to the curriculum. The changings creating 3 and 5 years new licenciaturas and master's degrees that correspond to either 4 or 7 years of study in the previous model, has generated considerable confusion among some people and institutions. It is also alleged that many of those master's degrees offered by certain institutions, were not designed to prepare the students for further study (3rd cycle).
Romania
Romania made major steps towards the European Higher Education Area by reorganizing the entire education system. The new structure was approved by the National Rectors Council in November 2003 releasing on 5th of November 2003 the Declaration of the National Higher Education Conference.
The new legislation of June 2004 (No. 288/2004) stipulates the reorganization of the university studies, in accordance with Bologna declaration and Prague 2001, Berlin 2003 ministerial meetings, in three main cycles: Bachelor, Master and Doctoral. The implementation begun with the 2005-2006 generation of students and consists in a short-term higher education (180 ECTS) after which the student receives a diploma de absolvire' or a long-term higher education (240-360 ECTS) after which one can receive an engineer diploma, diploma de inginer, (300 ECTS), architect diploma, diploma de architect, (360 ECTS) or bachelor diploma de licenţă in other fields (240-360 ECTS). The first stage of the higher education can be followed by an advanced studies program (60-90 ECTS) in the same field as the diploma obtained after a long-term higher education, giving the student a diploma for advanced studies diploma de studii aprofundate. Master studies last for 2 to 4 semesters (60-120 ECTS).
Russia and Ukraine
The Russian and Ukrainian higher education frameworks are basically incompatible with the process: the generic "lowest" degree in all universities since Soviet era is the Specialist which can be obtained after completing 5-6 years of studies. Since the mid-90s, many universities have introduced limited educational programmes allowing students to graduate with a Bachelor's degree (4 years) and then earn a Master's degree (another 1-2 years) while preserving the old 5-year scheme. It's worth mentioning that even though Specialists are eligible for post-graduate courses (Aspirantura) as well as Masters are, Bachelors are not. Specialist degree is now being discontinued in universities that take part in Bologna process, so new students don't have this option.
Serbia
In Serbia, the implementation of the Bologna process started in some schools in 2005, and in some it will start in 2006. The existing academic degree granted with a diploma was transformed into a baccalaureus and the programmes were shortened from 4 years to around 3. The degree granted with a magistratura was mostly eliminated or transformed into a master's degree, achieved after 5 years of study. Medicine and medicine related studies still last 6 or 5 years. The degree of doktorat (PhD) remains.
Currently, there is a lot of turmoil in the Serbian education system. The implementation of the Bologna process spawned a lot of problems, with one of the major problems being the introduction of very high tuition fees in public universities under the cover of the process. The fees, which are in some cases extremely high, have caused unrest among the student population. Currently, there isn't a single benefit of the Bologna process in Serbia[citation needed]. Because Serbia is not a part of the ERASMUS program, the students find it hard or even impossible to transfer between the European universities, thus have no use of their ECTS credits.
Spain
The structure of university degrees in Spain is quite different from the anglosaxon model.
For years it has had two kinds of initial degrees: 3-year "Diplomatura" or "Ingeniería Técnica" degrees and 4, 5 or 6-year "Licenciatura" or "Ingeniería" degrees. These two kinds of degrees used to be completely separate, the former leading to a medium-level technical profession (like Nursing, Social Work, School Teaching, medium-level Engineering, etc.) and the latter giving access to higher-level professions or academic disciplines (Physics, Chemistry, History, Psychology, Medicine, Sociology, Philosophy, Economics, higher Engineering, etc.) and opening the path to the Doctorate. Although the "Diplomatura" degrees used to be a sort of blocked path, over the years the possibility was opened to go on (with an extra year or half-year of study) to the last two years of a "Licenciatura" usually in a related but different field. But a "Diplomatura" has never been the exact equivalent of a BA/BSc, nor the "Licenciatura" that of a MA/MSC.
The new degrees have started for the master's level in 2006, and are scheduled to start at the undergraduate level in 2008. The new degrees will be: "Graduado" for the Bachelor's degree, after 4 years of study; "Master" with an extra year or two; and "Doctor" for the doctorate.
The reform will also mean the end of a long standing Spanish tradition of centralised definition of degrees, both in their names and in a large part of their contents. Universities will have a very large autonomy to define their programmes and the name of their degrees, and will have to account for the results by means of an evaluation and accreditation process.
Sweden
A bill proposing new regulations in the field of Higher Education was presented to Parliament in 2005. The new system came into force in July 2007. In the new system of degrees there will be two degrees of different lengths in each cycle.
- First cycle : Högskoleexamen 2 years, Kandidatexamen 3 years;
- Second cycle: Magisterexamen 1 year, Masterexamen 2 years;
- Third cycle: Licentiatexamen 2 years, Doktorsexamen 4 years.
All degrees and qualifications are described using learning outcomes.
In July 2007, a new system of credits compatible with the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System, ECTS, was introduced, where one högskolepoäng corresponds to one ECTS credit point.
Some Swedish universities have decided to introduce the ECTS standard grading scale for all students, while others only will use it for international students. However, since so called criterion-referenced grading is practiced instead of relative grading in the Swedish educational system, the 10%, 25%, 30%, 25% and 10% distribution of the students among A, B, C, D and E will not be obeyed.
Some universities have decided to only give grade Failed or Passed (F or P) at certain courses, for example internship and thesis projects, or at some assignments, for example laboratory exercises.
Switzerland
United Kingdom
England and Wales
The UK starts with either a three or four year ("Honours") Bachelor's degree. Four-year degrees are becoming more popular and some are equivalent to a three-year degree plus a Master's, or a three-year degree plus a year in employment.
A Master's degree generally takes a full year to complete. The academic year for Master's programmes is usually of twelve months, not nine months as for undergraduate degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of an MPhil, it may take two years.
The UK is almost unique in that graduates with a Bachelor's (Honours) degree can undertake doctoral studies without first having to obtain a Master's degree. Support for this is widespread in the UK because it costs students less to obtain a Ph.D, both in terms of time and money, than in other EU countries. Opponents argue that a Master's degree experience is required to train the student for their doctoral studies - both in practical techniques and enhanced knowledge of a field.
Scotland
Scottish students can leave school and enter University at age 17 with national Higher Grade certificates. To ensure that their exit standard is the same as in the rest of the UK, Scottish university courses generally last a year longer.[citation needed] However, it is often possible for school students to take Advanced Highers, equivalent to English A-levels, and join the courses at the second year.
A unique aspect is that the Ancient Universities of Scotland issue a Master of Arts as the first degree in humanities.
Criticism
The Bologna process is not without its critics and detractors. The process aims to Americanize European higher education, because all programmes are divided into Anglo-Saxon "undergraduate" and "graduate" degrees, where the undergraduate degree is the "basic degree". On the contrary, the traditional German academic programme aims towards five-to-six-year Master's; three-year vocational schooling is provided separately.
For instance some of the criticism of the process is the change that will be involved. In some countries, such as Ireland,[2] the pre-Bologna structure is nearer to the United States and this is a perceived benefit. Also the costs and disruption involved in changing structures which previously have been perceived to work to the benefit of educationalists and employers is questioned. Other perceived disadvantages are that the Master's degree will become the minimum qualification for a professional engineer, rather than the Bachelor's degree, or vice versa, that academically-aligned Bachelor degree holders would enter the workforce as if they were fully trained vocationally educated engineers (see: Fachhochschule). The agreements between professional bodies will require reevaluation in some cases as qualifications change.
During the years 2006 - 2007, the Greek government (New Democracy) with the consent of PASOK tried to implement the declaration of Bologna through massive reforms aiming at the university system. The above actions led to universities being taken over by the students, massive protests, police violence and riots. These reactions led to the failure of the constitutional change of the article 16 that prohibits the founding of private universities and also blocked the reform in the laws regarding the internal workings of universities.[clarification needed] In general, the Bologna process is denied by the majorities of the university students and teachers syndicates[verification needed]. Strikes also occurred in France in 2002-2003 against the reforms [3].
Furthermore, the process doesn't take into account the difference of vocational and academic education in the German-originated system. The conflation of the two types of degrees can be counterproductive, since the vocational three-year degrees are not intended for further study, and academic three-year degrees prepare only for continuing towards Master's, not entering the workforce.
Signatories
Current signatories and thus members of the "European higher education area" are: all member states of the EU (Belgium via Flanders & French Community), Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Georgia, Holy See, Iceland, Montenegro, Moldova, Norway, Macedonia, Russia, Serbia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine.
The following organisations are also part of the follow-up of the process: ESIB, EUA, EURASHE, EI, ENQA, UNICE as well as the Council of Europe, the European Commission and UNESCO.
Other networks at this level include ENQA as well as ENIC, NARIC and EURODOC.
Rejected counties/entities
Four entities have applied to be included in the Bologna process and have been rejected.
- Kyrgyz Republic
While the Kyrgyz Republic ratified the Lisbon Recognition Convention in 2004, it is not a State party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe, and there is – as far as is known – no consideration of expanding the geographical scope of this Convention. It therefore seems clear that the Kyrgyz Republic is not eligible to join the Bologna Process under the criteria defined in Berlin.
- North Cyprus
North Cyprus is not recognized as an independent political entity by any member of the Bologna Process except Turkey. It is therefore not a member of any international intergovernmental organisation, and it is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe. It is therefore obvious that North Cyprus is not eligible to join the Bologna Process under the criteria defined in Berlin.
- Israel
Israel is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe under which it does, however, have observer status. Hence, Israel participates in the meetings of the Council of Europe's Steering Committees under the European Cultural Convention – such as the CDESR – as an observer. While Israel is not a part of geographical Europe, it is a part of the UNESCO Europe Region. Under the criteria defined in the Berlin Communiqué, it seems clear that Israel is not eligible for access to the Bologna Process.
- Kosovo
Kosovo is not a party to the European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe. It seems clear that Kosovo cannot, under the present circumstances, become a member of the Bologna Process.
Possibly the most controversial of these rejected applicants is Northern Cyprus. The rejection is based on the premise that any application should come from the internationally recognised Republic of Cyprus. The constitution of 1960 assigned responsibility for education to the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communal chambers, not the central government. The de-facto status is that both communities look after their own educational systems.
References
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2007) |
- ^ The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area
- ^ The Bologna Declaration and Engineering Education in Ireland, The Institution of Engineers of Ireland, Dublin, 2001
- ^ Strikes against LMD reforms in France
Bibliography
- Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "Motivation zur Weiterbildung: Master- und Bachelor-Abschlüsse in den USA." Diskussion Musikpädagogik 29 (2006): 33-35.
See also
External links
- Bologna Process Secretariat 2005-2007
- National Unions of Students in Europe - Bologna Process Committee
- ENIC-NARIC network aims at improving academic recognition of diplomas and periods of study in Europe
- The internationalisation of the German education system - by the German Education Server
- "The Bologna Process from a Norwegian Perspective" Bologna Bergen Summit 2005. Norwegian perspective on the ten lines of action for the Bologna Process
- "Bologna for Pedestrians" Council of Europe
- "Bologna Process" Admissions Officers' and Credential Evaluators' (ACE) professional section of the EAIE - European Association for International Education. Includes updates on implementation from individual countries.
- "Bologna Process" European University Association. Analysis of Bologna Process, trends in education and background information with numerous reports in pdf format to download.
- "Guide to the Bologna Process" The UK Higher Education Europe Unit. UK perspective the ten lines of action for the Bologna Process.
- "The Bologna Process and Australia: Next steps" Australian Department of Science, Education and Training. Link to pdf file for full report on DEST analysis of Bologna Process and impact on Australian education.
- The Bologna Process, World Education News and Reviews, compilation of articles.