Horse meat

Musculature of horse

See also: Horse slaughter

Horse meat is the culinary name for meat cut from a horse. It is slightly sweet, tender, low in fat, and high in protein. Like beef and pork, it is a taboo food in some religions and cultures.

History

In the late Paleolithic (Magdalenian Era), wild horses formed an important source of food.

In pre-Christian times, horse meat was eaten in northern Europe as part of indigenous Germanic pagan religious ceremonies, particularly those associated with the worship of Odin.

France dates its taste for horse meat to the Battle of Eylau in 1807, when the surgeon-in-chief of Napoleon's Grand Army, Baron Dominique-Jean Larrey, advised the starving troops to eat the flesh of horses that had died on the battlefield. The cavalry used breastplates as cooking pans and gunpowder as seasoning, and thus founded a tradition, according to French folklore. Horse meat gained widespread acceptance in French cuisine during the later years of the Second French Empire. The high cost of living in Paris prevented many working-class citizens from buying meat such as pork or beef, so in 1866 the French government legalized the eating of horse meat and the first butcher's shop specializing in horse meat opened in eastern Paris, providing quality meat at lower prices. During the Siege of 1870-71, horse meat was eaten by anyone who could afford it, partly because of a shortage of fresh meat in the blockaded city, and also because horses were eating grain which was needed by the human populace. Many Parisians gained a taste for horse meat during the siege, and after the war ended, horse meat remained popular.

Despite the general Anglophone taboo, horse and donkey meat was eaten in Britain, especially in Yorkshire, until the 1930s.

The taboo

See also: Taboo food and drink

Which cultures

Horse is commonly eaten in many countries in Europe and Asia. It is a taboo food in English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, the US, and Australia; it is also taboo amongst the Romany people and in Brazil and India. Horse meat is not generally eaten in Spain, although the country exports horses both "on the hoof and on the hook" (i.e., live animals and slaughtered meat) for the French and Italian market; however, horse meat is consumed in some Latin American countries such as Mexico. It is illegal in some countries.

In many Islamic countries horse meat is generally forbidden or considered makruh, meaning it is not forbidden, but it is better not to eat because of some minor side-effects it might cause. However, horse meat is eaten in some Muslim Central Asian countries with a tradition of nomadic pastoralism, e.g., Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan. In other majority-Muslim countries there have been many instances, especially wars and famine, when horses were slaughtered and eaten.

Horse meat is forbidden by Jewish dietary laws because horses do not have cloven hooves.

In the eighth century, Popes Gregory III and Zachary instructed Saint Boniface, missionary to the Germans, to forbid the eating of horse flesh to those he converted, due to its association with Germanic pagan ceremonies. The people of Iceland allegedly expressed reluctance to embrace Christianity for some time, largely over the issue of giving up horse meat.

Reasons for the taboo

In some countries the effects of this prohibition by the Roman Catholic Church have lingered (e.g. in italy horse meat is on average highly praised for its qualities), and horse meat prejudices have progressed from taboos, to avoidance, to abhorrence. In other parts of the world, horse meat has the stigma of being something poor people eat and is seen as a cheap substitute for other meats, such as pork and beef.

According to the anthropologist Marvin Harris, some cultures class horsemeat as taboo because the horse converts grass into meat less efficiently than ruminants. When breeding cattle for meat, a cow or a sheep will produce more meat than a horse if fed with the same amount of grass. However, these cattle (apart from the ox) cannot be used as working animals, and this argument does not address the issue of meat wastage.

There is also an element of sentimentality, as horses have long enjoyed a close relationship with many humans, on a similar level to household pets – this can be seen projected in such Anglophone popular culture icons as Black Beauty or even My Little Pony. Compare with the anthropomorphic pigs in Babe and Charlotte's Web.

Totemistic taboo is also a possible reason for refusal to eat horsemeat. Roman sources state that the horse goddess Epona was widely worshipped in Gaul and southern Britain; the Uffington White Horse is probable evidence of ancient horse worship. The ancient Indian Brahmins engaged in horse sacrifice, as recorded in the Vedas. In 1913, the Finnic Mari people of the Volga region were observed to practice a horse sacrifice. (Folklorist Joseph Campbell argues that the Aryans came from these northern steppe folk, showing the connectedness of the European and Asian rituals).

It is notable that, despite horses having been bred in England since pre-Roman times, the English language has no widely used term for horse meat, as opposed to four for pig meat (pork, bacon, ham, gammon), three for sheep meat (lamb, hogget and mutton), two for cow meat (beef and veal), and so on. English speaking countries, however, have sometimes marketed horsemeat under the euphemism "cheval meat" (cheval being the French for horse). Also, note that the words pork, bacon, mutton, veal, and beef all derive from an old version of French, because of the class structure of England after the Norman Conquest in 1066 CE: the poor (Saxons) tended the animals, while the rich (French-speaking Normans) ate the meat.

Production

In most countries where horses are slaughtered for food, they are processed in a similar fashion to cattle, i.e., in large-scale factory slaughter houses (abbatoirs) where they are stunned with a captive bolt gun and bled to death.

In 2002, the 14 principal horsemeat producing countries produced 700,000 tonnes of this product, with over two-thirds produced by the top six: 1 China, 2 Mexico, 3 Kazakhstan, 4 Italy, 5 Argentina, 6 Mongolia. The consumption of horse meat in Europe in 2001 was 153,000 tonnes.

The British newspaper The Daily Mail reports that every year, 100,000 live horses are transported into and around the European Union for human consumption, mainly to Italy but also to France and Belgium.

A UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) 2003 investigation has revealed that salami sometimes contains horse meat, without this ingredient being listed. Listing is legally required.

Very few horsemeat producing countries raise horses just for meat; instead they use ex-racehorses, riding horses, and other horses sold at auction, sometimes stolen or purchased under false pretenses. The 1986 Kentucky Derby winner and 1987 Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year winner, Ferdinand, is believed to have been slaughtered in Japan, likely for pet food. Meat from horses that veterinarians have put down with a lethal injection is not consumed, as the toxin remains in the meat; the carcasses of such animals are cremated (all other means of disposal are problematic, due to the toxin).

Opposition to production

Main article: horse slaughter

The killing of horses for human consumption is widely opposed in countries such as USA and Britain where horses are generally considered to be companion and sporting animals only. French animal rights activist Brigitte Bardot has spent years crusading against the eating of horse meat. However, the opposition is far from unanimous; a 2007 readers' poll in the London magazine Time Out showed that 82% of respondents supported Gordon Ramsay's decision to serve horsemeat in his restaurants (see further discussion in the Ramsay article).

Preparation

Smoked and salted horse meat ("hamburgerkött") on a sandwich.

Horse meat has a slightly sweet taste reminiscent of a combination of beef and venison. Meat from younger horses tends to be lighter in color while older horses produce richer color and flavor, as with most mammals. Horse meat can be used to replace beef, pork, mutton, and any other meat in virtually any recipe.

Those preparing sandwiches or cold meals with horse meat usually use it smoked and salted. Horse meat forms an ingredient in several traditional recipes of salami.

Horse meat in various countries

Austria

Fast food shop selling horse Leberkäse (Pferdeleberkäse) in Vienna/Austria

Horse leberkäse is available and quite popular at various hot dog stands.

Kare is a stew made with horse meat and a variety of vegetables. The base of the dish is made from a peanut sauce (sometimes spiced), horse meat, and occasionally offal or tripe.

Dumplings can also be prepared with horse meat, spinach or Tyrolean Graukäse (a sour milk cheese). They are occasionally eaten on their own, in a soup, or as a side-dish.

Belgium

In Belgium, horse meat (paardenvlees in Flemish and viande chevaline in French) is highly prized. It is used in steak tartare, in which, compared to the beef equivalent, the richer flavor of the horse meat lends itself better to the pungent seasoning used in preparation. Besides being served raw, it can be broiled for a short period, producing a crusty exterior and a raw, moist interior. Smoked horse meat is very popular as breakfast and sandwich meat.

Horse steaks are also very popular; the town of Vilvoorde has a few restaurants specializing in this dish.

It is widely believed that traditional Belgian fried potatoes (pommes frites) were cooked in horse fat, but in fact ox fat (suet) was used, although for health reasons this has been supplanted by nut oil (considered inferior by many).

Canada

Agriculture in the province of Québec seems to prosper under the prohibitions from the United States. There is a thriving horse meat business in this French-influenced province; the meat is available at supermarket chains such as Loblaws and its subsidiary Maxi. Horse meat is also for sale at the other end of the country, in Granville Island Market in downtown Vancouver where, according to a Time magazine reviewer who smuggled it into the United States, it turned out to be a "sweet, rich, superlean, oddly soft meat, closer to beef than venison" .

Chile

In Chile it is used in charqui.

China

Horse meat is not available in most parts of China, although it is generally acceptable to Chinese. Its lack of popularity is mostly due to its low availability and some rumors saying that horse meat tastes bad or it is bad for health, even poisonous. In Compendium of Materia Medica, a pharmaceutical text published in 1596, Li Shizhen wrote "To relieve toxin caused by eating horse meat, one can drink carrot juice and eat almond." Today, in southwestern China, there are locally famous dishes such as Horse Meat Rice Vermicelli (马肉米粉) in Guilin. In the northwest, Kazakhs eat horse meat.

France

In France, specialized butcher shops (boucheries chevalines) sell horsemeat, as ordinary butcher shops have been for a long time forbidden to deal in it. However, since the 1990s, it can be found in supermarket butcher shops and others. An organization called La Viande Chevaline (literally, "horsemeat") exists to promote the industry, offering consumer information such as recipes, nutrition, purchase locations, and so on. According to its website, approximately 15 000 horses a year are raised for meat production, mostly draft breeds. It argues that the economic importance of horsemeat helps maintain the genetic heritage of traditional French breeds.

Germany

In Germany, horse meat is traditionally used in sauerbraten, a strongly marinated type of sweet-sour braised meat dish; in the last couple of decades, beef has become more commonly used. this dish is mainly eaten on a light toast for a breakfast.

Iceland

In Iceland it is both eaten minced and as steak, also used in stews and fondue, prized for its strong flavor.

Indonesia

In Indonesia, one type of satay (chunks of grilled meat served with spicy sauce) known as sate jaran is made from horse meat. This delicacy from Yogyakarta is served with sliced fresh shallot (small red onion), pepper, and sweet soy sauce.

Italy

Italian cuisine is highly regional. Horse meat is used in a stew called pastissada, served as horse or colt steaks, as carpaccio, or made into bresaola. Horse fat is used in recipes such as pezzetti di cavallo. In the province of Veneto a dish is prepared which consists of shredded, cured horsemeat on a bed of arugula, dressed with olive oil and fresh lemon juice. Also in Veneto, horsemeat sausages called salsiccia equino and salami called sfilacci are sold. The straight horsemeat steak carne di cavallo, similar to classic bloody American Porterhouse steak, is generally available in the Tyrol and Südtyrol regions of the Italian Alps. Chefs and consumers tend to prize its uniqueness by serving it as rare as possible. Donkey is also cooked, for example as a pasta sauce called stracotto d'asino. According to British food writer Matthew Fort, "The taste for donkey and horse goes back to the days when these animals were part of everyday agricultural life. In the frugal, unsentimental manner of agricultural communities, all the animals were looked on as a source of protein. Waste was not an option."

The British newspaper Daily Mail reports that every year, 100,000 live horses are transported into and around the EU for human consumption - mainly to Italy but also to France and Belgium.

Japan

Basashi from Towada

In Japanese cuisine, raw horse meat is called sakura (桜) or sakuraniku (桜肉, sakura means cherry blossom, niku means meat) because of its pink colour. It can be served raw as very chewy sashimi in thin slices dipped in soy sauce, often with ginger and onions added. In this case, it is called basashi (Japanese: 馬刺し). Fat, typically from the neck, is also found as basashi, though it is white, not pink. Horse meat is also sometimes found on menus for yakiniku (a type of barbecue), where it is called baniku (lit., horse meat) or bagushi (lit., skewered horse); thin slices of raw horse meat are sometimes served wrapped in a shiso leaf. Kumamoto and Matsumoto are famous for basashi, and it is common in the Tohoku region as well. There is also a dessert made from horse meat called basashi ice cream. The company that makes it is known for its unusual ice cream flavors, many of which have limited popularity.

See also Japanese cuisine.

Kazakhstan

In Kazakhstan many parts of a horse are used with the meat usually being salted, dried and smoked. Some of the dishes include sausages called kazy and shuzhuk made from the meat using the guts as the sausage skin, zhaya made from hip meat which is smoked and boiled, zhal made from neck fat which is smoked and boiled, karta made from a section of the rectum which is smoked and boiled, and sur-yet which is kept as dried meat.

See also Kazakh cuisine.

Malta

In Malta stallion meat (Template:Lang-mt) is a common meat product which is used in various dishes. It is usually fried or baked in a white wine sauce.

See also Maltese cuisine.

Mongolia

Mongolia, a nation famous for its nomadic pastures and equestrian skills, also includes horse meat on the menu. See Mongolian cuisine.

The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, smoked horse meat (paardenrookvlees) is sold as sliced meat and eaten on bread, although there are beef-based variants available for those who decline to eat horse meat. Horse meat is also sometimes made into sausage (paardenworst). The popularity of both varies between different parts of the country.

Norway

In some coastal areas in Norway it is traditional to eat horsemeat before the wedding to prevent bad spirits from joining the ceremony. This is usually done by the father of the bride, who proclaims "Hest er best!", lit. Horse is the best, before sending a piece of fresh horsemeat around the table.

Poland

Used in production of kabanos, recently declining in popularity.

Slovenia

Horse meat is generally available in Slovenia. Colt steak (žrebičkov zrezek) is available in some restaurants.

Sweden

In Sweden horse meat outsells lamb and mutton combined. Smoked/cured horse meat is widely available as a cold cut under the name hamburgerkött. It tends to be very thinly sliced and fairly salty, slightly reminiscent of deli-style ham. Gustavskorv, a smoked sausage made from horse meat, is also quite popular, especially in the south of Sweden. It is similar to salami or medwurst and is used as an alternative to them, on sandwiches, in salads, on pizza, etc.

Switzerland

In Switzerland horse meat may be used in Fondue Bourguignonne. Horse steak is also quite common, especially in the French-speaking West, but also more and more in the German-speaking part. A specialty known as mostbröckli is made with beef or horse meat. Horse meat is also used for a great range of sausages in the German-Speaking North of Switzerland.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom the slaughter and preparation of horses for food is legal although in practice it has been largely out of fashion since the 1930s. This is due to both the symbolic status of horses in UK culture and their role as pets. Horses were instrumental factors in both the agricultural revolution and transportation up until the 20th century. Additionally horses made up the principle units of nations military from medival times until the first world war. As a result of these factors, obtaining good quality horse meat for human consumption in the UK can be challenging. Individuals who do consume or prepare horse meat often aquire it from the south of france, were it is more widely available from specialist butchers who sell the meat.

United States

People in the United States rarely eat horse meat, but during World War II, due to the low supply and high price of beef, the state of New Jersey legalized its sale. At war's end, the state again prohibited the sale of horse meat, possibly in response to pressure from the beef lobby. Harvard University's Faculty Club had horse meat on the menu for over one hundred years, until 1983. Until 2007, a few horse meat abattoirs still existed in the United States, selling meat to zoos to feed their carnivores, and exporting it for human consumption, but recently the last has closed by court order.

See also

• Taboo food and drink
• Horse slaughter

External links

• New York Times article on the role of horses in Kazakhstan society
• "U.S.D.A. Promotes Horse & Goat Meat". International Generic Horse Association. Retrieved 2007-08-09. (quoting a 1997 USDA report said to be no longer available online)
• http://www.viande-chevaline.fr is the web site made by the French Horse Meat Industry structure, called Interbev Equins