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Acadia

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This article details the region of northeastern North America. For other meanings of the term, see Acadia (disambiguation); for the Acadian people and culture, see Acadians.
Acadia
l'Acadie
Division of New France
1604–1713
Flag of Acadia

Acadia (1754)
CapitalPort-Royal
History 
• Established
1604
1713
 Succeeded by
Nova Scotia

Acadia (in the French language l'Acadie) was the name given to a colonial territory in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day New England, stretching as far south as Philadelphia. The actual specification by the French government for the territory refers to lands bordering the Atlantic coast, roughly between the 40th and 46th parallels. Later, the territory was divided into the British colonies which were to become Canadian provinces and American states.

Etymology

The origin of the name Acadia is credited to the explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano (1480–1527), who, on his sixteenth century map applied the Greek term "Arcadie", meaning the proverbial land of plenty, to the entire Atlantic coast north of Virginia. Another theory is that Acadia is derived from the Mi'kmaq term akadi, still found in place names like Tracadie and Shubenacadie (or, in the related Maliseet language, the term quoddy, seen in Passamaquoddy Bay), both meaning a "fertile place".

The Dictionary of Canadian Biography says "'Arcadia,' the name Giovanni gave to Maryland or Virginia 'on account of the beauty of the trees,' made its first cartographical appearance in the 1548 Gastaldo map and is the only name to survive in Canadian usage. It has a curious history. In the 17th century Champlain fixed its present orthography, with the 'r' omitted, and Ganong has shown its gradual progress northwards, in a succession of maps, to its resting place in the Atlantic Provinces."

Geography

The Acadian peninsula was a series of coastal lowlands ringed by salt marshes. The area is subject to very high tides - regularly as much as 25 feet in change. The interior of the peninsula was heavily wooded and crisscrossed with creeks, lakes, and bogs.[1] Acadia was very geographically isolated,[2] as transportation overland was difficult and the peninsula was not near the shipping lanes to Quebec or Boston.[3]

Median temperatures in January and February were often 15 to 20 degrees colder than western France, where many of the settlers were from.[4]

History

Main article: History of the Acadians
Port Royal circa 1609

Early European colonists, who would later become known as Acadians, were French subjects primarily from the Pleumartin to Poitiers in the Vienne département of west-central France. The first French settlement was established by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts, Governor of Acadia under the authority of King Henry IV, on Saint Croix Island in 1604. The following year, the settlement was moved across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal after a difficult winter on the island and deaths due to scurvy. In 1607 the colony received bad news: King Henry had revoked Sieur de Monts' royal fur monopoly, citing that the income was insufficient to justify supplying the colony further. Thus recalled, the last of the Acadian left Port Royal in August of 1607. Their allies, native Mi'kmaq nation, kept careful watch over their possessions, though. When the former Lieutenant Governor, Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just returned in 1610, he found Port Royal just as it was left. [5]

The French took control of the Abenaki First Nations territory. In 1654, King Louis XIV of France appointed aristocrat Nicolas Denys as Governor of large portions of Acadia and granted him the confiscated lands and the right to all its minerals. British colonists captured Acadia in the course of King William's War (1690-97), but Britain returned it to France at the peace settlement. It was recaptured in the course of Queen Anne's War (1702-13), and its conquest was confirmed in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713).

On June 23 that year, the French residents of Acadia were given one year to declare allegiance to Britain or leave Nova Scotia.[citation needed] In the meantime, the French signalled their preparedness for future hostilities by beginning the construction of Fortress Louisbourg on Isle Royale, now Cape Breton Island. The British grew increasingly alarmed by the prospect of disloyalty in wartime of the Acadians now under their rule.

Great Upheaval

Main article: Great Upheaval

In the summer of 1755, the British attacked Fort Beauséjour and burned Acadian homes at the outbreak of the French and Indian War between Britain and France (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), accusing Acadians of disloyalty (for not having taken the oath) and guerrilla action. Those who still refused to swear loyalty to the British crown then suffered what is referred to as the Great Upheaval when, over the next three years, some 6,000-7,000 Acadians were expelled from Nova Scotia to France or the lower British American colonies. Others fled deeper into Nova Scotia or into French-controlled Canada. The Quebec town of L'Acadie (now a sector of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu) was founded by expelled Acadians.[6]

After 1764, many exiled Acadians finally settled in Louisiana, which had been transferred by France to Spain before the end of the French and Indian War. The name Acadian was corrupted to Cajun, which was first used as a pejorative term until its later mainstream acceptance. Britain allowed some Acadians to return to Nova Scotia, but these were forced to settle in small groups, and were not permitted to reside in their former settlements such as Grand-Pré, Port Royal, and Beaubassin.

Government

Acadia was located in territory disputed between France and Great Britain. England controlled the area from 1654 until 1670 and permanently regained control in 1713. Although France controlled the territory in the remaining periods, French monarchs consistently neglected Acadia, failing to contribute much, if at all, to its defence, development, colonization, or administration, leaving the colonists to rely on themselves.[7] The government of New France was located in Quebec, but it had only nominal authority over the Acadians.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). Landlords owned wide swaths of the land, and while they sometimes collected dues from the settlers, they exercised no other legal powers.[8]

With no strong royal authority, the Acadians implemented village self-rule.[9] Even after Canada had given up its elected spokesmen, the Acadians continued to demand a say in their own government, as late as 1706 petitioning the monarchy to allow them to elect spokesmen each year by a plurality of voices. In a sign of his indifference to the colony, Louis XV agreed to their demand.[8] Male elders of the community settled internal disputes and spoke to the government on behalf of their neighbours, sometimes with the help of the priests.[10]

Most of the immigrants to Acadia were French peasants whose oppression by the noble landholders had left them with a deep suspicion of those in authority. This suspicion was transplanted to those in authority in Acadia as well, be they French or English[11] Acadians regularly protested the actions of local administrators and clergymen to higher authorities in Quebec and France. If their appeals failed, which they usually did, the Acadians would procrastinate or resort to passive resistance techniques, including subterfuge, to continue defying the authorities.[7] Administrators complained of constant in-fighting among the population, which filed many petty civil suits with colonial magistrates. Most of these were over boundary lines, as the Acadians were very quick to protect their new lands.[12]

Demographics

After a 1692 visit, Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, described the Acadian men as "'well-built, of good height, and they would be accepted without difficulty as soldiers in a guards' regiment. [They are] well-proportioned and their hair is usually blond. [They are] robust, and will endure great fatigue; [they] are fine subjects of the king, passionately loving the French of Europe'".[13] Most Acadians were illiterate, and many of the records, including notarial deeds, were destroyed or scattered during the Great Expulsion. For a time, Port Royal did have schools, but these were closed when the British excluded Roman Catholic religious orders from operating in Acadia.[13] While Acadia was under French rule, all settlers were required to be baptised in the Roman Catholic faith.[14] Despite their nominal faith, Acadians often worked on Sundays and religious holidays.[13]

Before 1654, trading companies and patent holders recruited men in France to come to Acadia to work at the commercial outposts, most of which were concerned with fishing.[15] The original Acadian population was a small number of indentured servants and soldiers brought by the fur-trading companies. Gradually, fishermen began settling in the area as well, rather than return to France with the seasonal fishing fleet.[7] The majority of the recruiting took place at La Rochelle. Between 1653 and 1654, 104 men were recruited at La Rochelle. Of these, 31% were builders, 15% were soldiers and sailors, 8% were food preparers, 6.7% were farm workers, and an additional 6.7% worked in the clothing trades.[15] Fifty-five percent of Acadia's first families came from the Centre-Ouest region of France, primarily from Poitou, Aunis, Angoumois, and Saintonge. Over 85% of these (47% of the total), were former residents of the La Chausée area of Poitou.[12] Many of the families who arrived in 1632 with Razilly shared some blood ties; those not related by blood shared cultural ties with the others.[12] The number of original immigrants was very small, and only about 100 surnames existed within the Acadian community.[7]

Some of the earliest settlers married women of the local Micmac tribe who had converted to Roman Catholicism.[7] The French immigrants accepted and worked closely with the natives, whose black hair, brown eyes, and dark skin were similar to those of the Mediterranean peoples near France.[16] A Parisian lawyer, Marc Lescarbot, who spent several months in Acadia in 1606, described the Micmac as having "'courage, fidelity, generosity, and humanity, and their hospitality is so innate and praiseworthy that they receive among them every man who is not an enemy. They are not simpletons. ... So that if we commonly call them Savages, the word is abusive and unmerited.'"[17]

Most of the immigrants to Acadia were peasants in Europe, making them social equals in the New World. The colony had limited economic support or cultural contacts with France, leaving a "social vacuum" that allowed "individual talents and industry ... [to supplant] inherited social position as the measure of a man's worth."[2] Acadians lived as social equals, with the elderly and priests considered slightly superior.[8] Unlike the French colonists in Canada and the early English colonies in Plymouth and Jamestown, Acadians maintained an extended kinship system,[2] and the large extended families assisted in building homes and barns, as well as cultivating and harvesting crops.[4] They also relied on interfamily cooperation to accomplish community goals, such as building dykes or reclaiming tidal marshes.[18]

Marriages were generally not love matches but were arranged for economic or social reasons. Parental consent was required for anyone under 25 who wished to marry, and both the mother's and father's consent was recorded in the marriage deed.[19] Divorce was not permitted in New France, and annulments were almost impossible to get. Legal separation was offered as an option, but was seldom used.[20]

The Acadians were suspicious of outsiders, and did not readily cooperate with census takers. The first reliable population figures for the area came with the census of 1671, which noted fewer than 450 people. By 1714, the Acadian population had expanded to 2,528 individuals, mostly from natural increase rather than immigration.[7] Most Acadian women in the 18th century gave birth to living children an average of eleven times. Although these numbers are identical to those in Canada, 75% of Acadian children reached adulthood, many more than in other parts of New France. The isolation of the Acadian communities meant the people were not exposed to many of the imported epidemics, allowing the children to remain healthier.[21] Immigrants from Europe tended to be less fertile, probably due to their diet in France.

In the 18th century, some Acadians migrated to nearby Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island) to take advantage of the fertile cropland. In 1732, the island had 347 settlers but with 25 years its population had expanded to 5000 Europeans.[22]

Economy

Most Acadian households were self-sufficient[3], with families engaged in subsistance farming supplemented with meat caught through fishing and hunting.[23] In the early days of the colony, Acadia was an "economic backwater", with few trade goods and little money to attract merchants. Acadia was not near the sea lanes which brought ships to Quebec and Boston, and transportation within the peninsula was difficult.[3] Farms tended to remain small plots of land worked by individual families rather than slave labor.[24] Farmers grew wheat, peas, cabbage, turnips, and apples, and raised maize as a secondary crop. Barley, oats, and potatoes were also planted as feed for the livestock, including cattle, pigs, and poultry. These animals provided a steady supply of meat to the Acadians, which they supplemented with fish.[20]

After 1630, the Acadians began to build dykes and drain the sea marsh above Port Royal. The high salinity of of the reclaimed coastal marshland meant that the land would need to sit for three years after it was drained before it could be cultivated.[4] The land reclamation techniques that were used closely resembled the enclosures near La Rochelle that helped make solar salt.[7]

As time progressed, the Acadian agriculture improved, and Acadians traded with the British colonies in New England to gain ironware, fine cloth, rum, and salt. During the French administration of Acadia, this trade was illegal, but it did not stop some English traders from establishing small stores in Port Royal.[13] Under English rule, the Acadians often smuggled their excess food to Boston merchants at Baie Verte and to the French at Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island.[25]

Many adult sons who did not inherit land from their parents settled on adjacent vacant lands to remain close to their families.[26] As the best land was taken, some moved further north of Port Royal, into the Upper Bay of Fundy settlements, including Mines, Pisiquid, and Beaubassin. Many of the pioneers into that area persuaded some of their relatives to accompany them, and most of the frontier settlements contained only five to ten interrelated family unites.[27]

Contemporary Acadia

Acadian communities in 2006

Today, Acadia has been used to refer to regions of Atlantic Canada with French roots, language, and culture, primarily in northern and eastern New Brunswick.[28] In the abstract, Acadia refers to the existence of a French culture on Canada’s east coast. (See also Acadians.)

The French language has gradually returned to modern Acadia, and from 1951 through 1986 over 58% of the Acadian population spoke French as their maternal tongue.[28]

The anthem of contemporary Acadia is Ave Maris Stella, and it is represented by the flag adopted at Miscouche, Prince Edward Island in 1884.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Faragher, John Mack (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme. W.W. Norton & Co., New York. ISBN 0-393-05135-8
  2. ^ a b c Brasseaux (1987), p. 3.
  3. ^ a b c Brasseaux (1987), p. 10.
  4. ^ a b c Brasseaux (1987), p. 11.
  5. ^ Faragher, John Mack (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme. W.W. Norton & Co., New York. pp. 17-19. ISBN 0-393-05135-8
  6. ^ http://www.ville.saint-jean-sur-richelieu.qc.ca/cgi-bin/index.cgi?page=y1_2
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Moogk (2000), p. 7.
  8. ^ a b c Moogk (2000), p. 175.
  9. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 176.
  10. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 73.
  11. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 4.
  12. ^ a b c Brasseaux (1987), p. 8.
  13. ^ a b c d Moogk (2000), p. 174.
  14. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 62.
  15. ^ a b Moogk (2000), p. 92.
  16. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 20.
  17. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 18.
  18. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 270.
  19. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 180.
  20. ^ a b Moogk (2000), p. 229.
  21. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 219.
  22. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 6.
  23. ^ Brasseaux (1987), p. 9.
  24. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 12.
  25. ^ Brasseaux (1987), p. 16.
  26. ^ Moogk (2000), p. 178.
  27. ^ Brasseaux (1987), p. 12.
  28. ^ a b Beaujot (1998), p. 79.

References

  • Beaujot, Roderic (1998), "Demographic Considerations in Canadian Language Policy", in Ricento, Thomas; Burnaby, Barbara (eds.), Language and Politics in the United States and Canada: Myths and Realities, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0805828389
  • Brasseaux, Carl A. (1987), The Founding of New Acadia: The Beginnings of Acadian Life in Louisiana, 1765–1803, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, ISBN 0807112968
  • Moogk, Peter (2000), La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada—A Cultural History, East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, ISBN 0870135287
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