Old Church Slavonic
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Old Church Slavonic was the first literary Slavic language, developed from the Slavic dialect of Thessalonica by the 9th century Byzantine missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who used it for translation of the Bible and other texts from Greek and for some of their own writings. It played a great role in the history of Slavic languages and evolved into Church Slavonic, which is still used as a liturgical language by some Orthodox and Greek-Catholic Churches of the Slavic peoples.
History
The language was standardized for the mission of the two apostles to Great Moravia in 863 (see Glagolitic alphabet for details). For that purpose, Cyril and his brother Methodius first codified Old Church Slavonic from the Southern Slavic dialect spoken in the neighbourhood (hinterland) of their city Thessalonica, in the region of Macedonia (Ѳессалонїка; in Old Church Slavonic, Словѣньскъ), in the Byzantine Empire.
As part of the preparation for the mission, in 862/863, the Glagolitic alphabet was created and the most important prayers and liturgical books, including the Aprakos Evangeliar (a Gospel Book lectionary containing only feast-day and Sunday readings), the Psalter, and Acts of the Apostles, were translated. (The Gospels were also translated early, but it is unclear whether Sts. Cyril or Methodius had a hand in this). The language and the alphabet were taught at the Great Moravian Academy (Veľkomoravské učilište) and were used for government and religious documents and books between 863 and 885. The texts written during this phase contain characteristics of the Slavic vernaculars in Great Moravia.
In 885, the use of the Old Church Slavonic in Great Moravia was prohibited by the Pope in favour of Latin. Students of the two apostles, who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, brought the Glagolitic alphabet and the Old Church Slavonic language to the Bulgarian Empire. It was taught at two Bulgarian academies - in Preslav (capital 893-972) and Ohrid (capital 991/997-1015). The Cyrillic alphabet was developed shortly afterwards in the Preslav Literary School and replaced the Glagolitic one. The texts written during this era contain characteristics of the vernacular of Bulgaria. There are some linguistic differences between texts written in the two academies.
Thereupon the language, in its Bulgarian recension, spread to other South-Eastern and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably to Croatia, Serbia, Bohemia, Lesser Poland, and the Russian principalities. The texts written in each country contain characteristics of the local Slavic vernacular.
Much later, local redactions of Old Church Slavonic were created for ecclesiastical and administrative use, and are collectively known as Church Slavonic (Macedonian: црковнословенски јазик, crkovnoslovenski jazik; Bulgarian: църковнославянски език, ts'rkovnoslavyanski ezik; Russian: церковнославя́нский язы́к, tserkovnoslavyánskiy yazík), but these terms are often confused. Church Slavonic maintained a prestige status, particularly in Russia, for many centuries—among Slavs in the East it had a status analogous to that of the Latin language in western Europe, but had the advantage of being substantially less divergent from the vernacular tongues of average parishioners. Some Orthodox churches, such as the Russian Orthodox Church, Bulgarian Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox Church, as well as several Greek Catholic churches, still use Church Slavonic in their services and chants today.
Script
Initially Old Church Slavonic was written with the Glagolitic alphabet, but later Glagolitic was was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet. Only in Croatia was the local variant of the Glagolitic alphabet preserved. See Early Cyrillic alphabet for a detailed description of the script and information about the sounds it originally expressed.
Basis and local influences
Old Church Slavonic is evidenced by a relatively small body of manuscripts, most of which were written in Bulgaria during the late 10th and the early 11th centuries. The language has a Southern Slavic basis with an admixture of Western Slavic features inherited during the mission of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius to Great Moravia (863 - 885). The only well-preserved manuscript of Moravian recension, the Kiev Folia, is characterised by the replacement of some Southern Slavic phonetic and lexical features with Western Slavic ones. Manuscripts written in the medieval Bulgarian tsardom have, on the other hand, few Western Slavic features.
Old Church Slavonic is valuable to historical linguists since it preserves archaic features believed to have once been common to all Slavic languages. Some of these features are:
- The nasal vowels */ẽ/ and /õ/
- Supershort /i/ and /u/.
- Open articulation of the yat vowel.
- [ɲ] and [ʎ] from Proto-Slavic *nj and *lj
- Proto-Slavic declension system based on stem-endings (so-called o-stems, jo-stems, a-stems and ja-stems)
- aorists, the imperfect, Proto-Slavic paradigms for participles etc. were still used
The Southern Slavic nature of the language is evident from the following variations:
- Phonetic:
- /ra/, la/ from metathesis of Proto-Slavic *ǫr, *ǫl
- /s/ from the Proto-Slavic *x before *ąi
- /tsv/ and /dzv/ from the Proto-Slavic *kv', *gv'
- morphosyntactic
- use of the dative possessive case in personal pronouns and nouns: рѫка ти; отъпоуштенье грѣхомъ; descriptive future tense using the verb хотѣти (to want); use of the comparative form мьнии (smaller) to denote "younger".
- use of suffixed demonstrative pronouns (тъ, та, то). In Bulgarian and Macedonian these developed into suffixed definite articles.
Old Church Slavonic has some extra features in common with Bulgarian:
- Open articulation of the Yat vowel (Ѣ); still preserved in the Bulgarian dialects of the Rhodope mountains;
- The existence of /ʃt/ and /ʒd/ as reflexes of Proto-Slavic *tj and *dj or *gt and *kt before front vowels.
- Use of possessive dative for personal pronouns and nouns, as in братъ ми, рѫка ти, отъпоущенье грѣхом, храмъ молитвѣ, etc
- Descriptive future tense with the auxiliary verb хотѣти, for example хощѫ писати
| Proto-Slavic | OCS | Bulg. | Czech | Maced. | Pol. | Rus. | Slovak | Sloven. | Serb. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *dʲ | ʒd | ʒd | z | gʲ | ʣ | ʐ | ʣ | j | ʥ |
| *tʲ | ʃt | ʃt | ʦ | kʲ | ʦ | tɕ | ʦ | ʧ | ʨ |
| *gt/kt | ʃt | ʃt | ʦ | kʲ | ʦ | tɕ | ʦ | ʧ | ʨ |
Eastern-Bulgarian recension
The Bulgarian recension is the oldest recension of the Old Church Slavonic language. It was introduced by the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon in the ninth century throughout the First Bulgarian Empire. The main literary centers of this recension were the two main academies in Ohrid and Preslav, which led to the Ohrid and Preslav Literary Schools (the first was founded by Saint Clement of Ohrid, who was one of the students of Cyril and Methodius, who came to Bulgaria from Moravia, and was sent by the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon to Ohrid). Since there were several literary centres in the Bulgarian Empire this led to the appearance of multiple Bulgarian recensions in the period from the ninth to the eleventh centuries. Thus:
- The Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets were used concurrently
- In some documents the original supershort vowels ъ and ь merged with one letter taking the place of the other
- In Western-Bulgarian recensions ъ was sometimes substituted with о
- In Eastern-Bulgarian recensions the original ascending reflex (рь, ль) of syllabic /r/ and /r/ was sometimes metathesized to ьр, ьл; or a combination of the ordering was used
- The central vowel ы merged with ъi
- Sometimes the use of letter 'Ѕ' (/dz/) was merged with that of 'З' (/z/)
- verb forms naricajǫ, naricaješi were substituted or alternated with naričǫ, naričeši
- Use of words with proto-Bulgar origin, such as кумиръ, капище, чрьтогъ, блъванъ, etc.
Macedonian recension
The Macedonian recension thrived in the period between the 10th and 14th centuries. The main literary center of this recension was the Ohrid Literary School, one of the two main literary centers of the First Bulgarian Empire whose most prominent member, and most likely founder, was Saint Clement of Ohrid. As this recension grew and thrived, several other literary centers emerged, among which most notable is the Lesnovo Literary School of the Lesnovo Monastery. The main features of this recension are the following:
- Continuous usage of the Glagolithic alphabet instead of the Cyrillic alphabet;
- A feature called "mixing (confusion) of the nasals" so that /ɔ̃/ became [ɛ̃] after /rʲ lʲ nʲ/, and in a cluster of a labial consonant and /lʲ/. /ɛ̃/ became [ɔ̃] after sibilant consonants and /j/.
- Wide use of the soft consonant clusters /ʃt/ and /ʒd/; in the later stages, these developed into the modern Macedonian phonems /kʲ/ /gʲ/
- Strict distinction in the articulation of the yers and their vocalisation in strong position (ъ → /o/ and ь → /o/) or deletion in weak position;
- Confusion of /ɛ̃/ with yat and yat with /e/;
- Denasalization in the latter stages: /ɛ̃/ → /e/ and /ɔ̃/ → a, ѹ, ъ;
- Wider usage and retainment of the phoneme /dz/ (which in all Slavic languages but Macedonian has daffricated to /z/);
Moravian recension
While in the Prague fragments the only Moravian influence is replacing /ʃt/ with /ts/ and /ʒd/ with /z/, the recension evidenced by the Kiev Folia is characterised by the following features:
- Confusion between the letters Big yus (Ѫ) and Uk (ѹ) occurs once in the Kiev Folia, when the expected form въсѹдъ is spelled въсѫдъ
- /ts/ from Proto-Slavic *tj, use of /dz/ from *dj, /ʃtʃ/ *skj
- use of the words mьša, cirky, papežь, prěfacija, klepati, piskati etc.
- preservation of the the consonant cluster /dl/ (e.g. modlitvami)
- use of the ending –ъmь instead of –omь in the masculine singular instrumental, use of the pronoun čьso
Later recensions (Church Slavonic)
Later use of the language in a number of medieval Slavic states resulted in the adjustment of Old Church Slavonic to the local vernacular, though a number of Southern Slavic, Moravian or Bulgarian features were also preserved. Some of the significant later recensions of Old Church Slavonic (referred to as Church Slavonic) in the present time are: Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian, Russian.
Croatian recension
The Croatian recension of Old Church Slavonic is one of the earliest known today. It only used the Glagolitic alphabet. The nasal sounds [ǫ] / [ę] had been substituted with [o] / [u] and a variety of reflections of the proto-Slavic *tj and *dj emerged.
Russian recension
The Russian recension was developed after the 10th century on the basis of the earlier Bulgarian recensions, from which it differed slightly. Its main features are:
- substitution of the nasal sound [ǫ] with [u]
- merging of letters [ě] and [ja]
Serbian recension
The Serbian recension was at first written in the Glagolitic alphabet, but later switched to the Cyrillic alphabet. It appeared in the 12th century on the basis of the East-Bulgarian recensions:
- nasal vowels [ǫ] and [ę] were replaced with [u] and [е]
- use of diacritical signs by the Resava recension
- use of letters [i], [y], [ě] for the sound 'i' by the Bosnian recension
Authors
The history of Old Church Slavonic writing includes a northern tradition begun by the mission to Great Moravia, including a short mission in the Balaton principality, and a Bulgarian tradition begun by some of the missionaries who relocated to Bulgaria after the expulsion from Great Moravia.
Old Church Slavonic's first writings, translations of Christian liturgical and Biblical texts, were produced by Byzantine missionaries Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, mostly during their mission to Great Moravia.
The most important authors in Old Church Slavonic after the death of Methodius and the dissolution of the Great Moravian academy were Clement of Ohrid (active also in Great Moravia), Constantine of Preslav, Chernorizetz Hrabar and John Exarch, all of whom worked in medieval Bulgaria at the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th century.
Nomenclature
The original name of the language in the Old Church Slavonic texts was simply "Slavic" (словѣньскыи ѩзыкъ slověnĭskyj językŭ),[1] derived from the word словѣне slověne, the self-designation of the compilers of the texts.
The language is sometimes called "Old Slavic", but that term is undesirable as it may be confused with the distinct Proto-Slavic language.
The designation Old Bulgarian (German Altbulgarisch) was introduced in the 19th century by reputable linguists as August Schleicher, Martin Hattala and Leopold Geitler who noticed that the linguistic features of the first Slavic literary works are the same as those of the Bulgarian language. For similar reasons Russian linguist Aleksandr Vostokov used the term Slav-Bulgarian.
The commonly accepted terms in modern English-language Slavic studies are Old Church Slavic and Old Church Slavonic. Old Bulgarian can still be found in a number of sources and is the only designation used by Bulgarian linguistics, because it corresponds to the earliest form of written Bulgarian, followed by Middle Bulgarian and New Bulgarian.
Modern Slavic nomenclature
Here are some of the names used by speakers of modern Slavic languages:
- Template:Lang-be — 'Old Slavic'
- Template:Lang-bs — 'Old (Church) Slavic'
- Template:Lang-bg — 'Old Bulgarian'
- Template:Lang-cs — 'Old Slavic'
- Template:Lang-hr — 'Old (Church) Slavic'
- Template:Lang-mk — 'Old (Church) Slavic'
- Template:Lang-pl — 'Old Church Slavic'
- Template:Lang-ru — 'Old Slavic'
- Template:Lang-sr — 'Old (Church) Slavic'
- Template:Lang-sk — '(Old) Slavic'
- Template:Lang-sl — 'Old Church Slavic'
- Template:Lang-ua — 'Old Slavic'
References
- ^ Nandris, Grigore (1959). Old Church Slavonic Grammar, p. 2 (London: University of London Athlone Press).
See also
External links
- Old Church Slavonic Wikipedia
- Old Church Slavonic Online, a comprehensive tutorial at the A. Richard Diebold Center for Indo-European Language and Culture, Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas at Austin