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Water supply and sanitation in Ghana

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Ghana: Water and Sanitation
Data
Water coverage (broad definition) 75%[1]
Sanitation coverage (broad definition) 18%[1]
Continuity of supply (%) 25% in Accra[2]
Average urban water use (l/c/d) n/a
Average urban water tariff (US$/m³) US$0.66 (2006)[3][4]
Share of household metering n/a
Share of collected wastewater treated about 10% in Accra[5]
Annual investment in WSS US$17m[6]
Share of self-financing by utilities Very low
Share of tax-financing Very low
Share of external financing about 90%[7]
Institutions
Decentralization to municipalities In rural areas: Decentralization to districts, since 1994
National water and sanitation company Yes: Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL)
Water and sanitation regulator In urban areas: Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC)
Responsibility for policy setting Water Directorate within the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing
Sector law various
Number of urban service providers 1: GWCL
Number of rural service providers more than 400 community-managed piped systems[8]

The water supply and sanitation sector in Ghana today faces severe problems, partly due to a negligence of the sector in the last decades of the 20th century. The tariffs were kept at a low level which was far from reflecting the real cost of the service and economic efficiency still remains below the regional average, resulting in a lack of financial resources to maintain and extend the infrastructure.[9] Since 1994, the sector has been gradually modernized through the creation of autonomous regulatory agencies, introduction of private sector participation and decentralization of the rural supply to the districts, where user-participation is encouraged. The reforms aim at reaching full cost recovery through higher tariffs and a modernization of the urban utility GWCL and rural supply systems.[10]

Another problem which partly arose from those recent reforms is the existence of a multitude of institutions with overlapping responsibilities. The National Water Policy (NWP) which was launched at the beginning of 2008, seeks to introduce a comprehensive sector policy.[11]

Access

Urban
(46% of the population) 		Rural
(54% of the population) 		Total
Water[1] Broad definition 88% 64% 75%
House connections 37% 4% 19%
Sanitation[1] Broad definition 27% 11% 18%
Sewerage 13% 2% 7%

The water supply and sanitation infrastructure is insufficient, especially in rural areas. Major investments are needed to extend coverage and rehabilitate and maintain existing infrastructure. The share of non-functional supply systems in Ghana is estimated at almost one third, the remainder operating substantially below designed capacity. Besides these financial problems, the domestic water supply is challenged by a rising demand for water by the expanding industry, farming and urban growth.[12] Ghana aims at achieving 85% coverage for water supply and sanitation by 2015[13], which would exceed the Millenium Development Goals' target of 78%.[14]

Service quality

Continuity of supply

It is estimated that in Accra, only one quarter of the residents receive a continuos water supply, whereas approximately 30% are provided for 12 hours each day during five days of a week. Another 35% are supplied for two days each week. The remaining 10% who maily live in the outskirts of the capital are completely without access to piped water.[2]

Drinking water quality

The lack of clean drinking water and sanitation systems is a severe public health concern in Ghana, which contributes to 70% of diseases in the country. Consequently, households without access to clean water are forced to use less reliable and hygienic sources, and often pay more.[12]

Wastewater treatment

It is estimated that in 2000 only the urban areas of Ghana generated about 763,698 m³ of wastewater each day, resulting in approximately 280 million m³ over the whole year. Regional capitals count for another 180 million m³.[15] As both urban and rural infrastructure are poor, only a small share of the generated wastewater is collected for treatment. In Accra, this share is approximately 10%. Moreover, less than 25% of the existing treatment plants are functional. A modern biological treatment plant has been built at Accra's Korle Lagoon. However, it only handles about 8% of Accra's wastewater.[16]

Water resources

A young Ghanaian standing on a partially submerged tree branch near the Wli Lower Falls, located in the Volta Region.

Ghana is well endowed with water resources. The Volta river system basin, consisting of the Oti, Daka, Pru, Sene and Afram rivers as well as the white and black volta rivers, covers 70% of the country area. Another 22% of Ghana is covered by the southwestern river system comprising the Bia, Tano, Ankobra and Pra river. The coastal river system, comprising the Ochi-Nawuka, Ochi Amissah, Ayensu, Densu and Tordzie rivers, covers the remaining 8% of the country.

Furthermore, groundwater is available in mesozoic and cenozoic sedimentary rocks and in sedimentary formations underlying the Volta basin. The Volta Lake with a surface of 8,502 billion km2 is one of the largest artificial lakes in the world. All in all, the total actual renewable water resources are estimated to be 53.2 billion m³ per year.[17]

Water use

In 2000, total water withdrawal was 982 m³, of which two thirds were used for agricultural purposes. Another 10% was withdrawn for the industry, leaving 24% or 235 m³ for domestic use. Furthermore, 37,843 km³ is used for hydroelectricity generation at the Akosombo Dam each year.[18]

History and recent developments

History

In 1928, the first piped water supply system was constructed at Cape Coast. The Water Supply Division of the Public Works Department was responsible for the service provision in both rural and urban areas of Ghana. In 1958, the division was seperated from the Public Works Department and placed under the Ministry of Works and Housing and in 1965, it was transformed into the Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation (GWSC), responsible for practically all water and sanitation issues in Ghana, including research, assurance of water quality and billing.

In the framework of an economic recovery program, a Water Sector Rehabilitation Project (WSRP) was started in the 1990s to support institutional strengthening, rehabilitation of facilities and decentralisation. To pay more attention to water supply and sanitation in rural areas, the Community Water and Sanitation Division was founded as a semi-autonomous division of GWSC in 1994. Four years later, it changed its name into Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) and became fully independent. Since then, urban and rural service provision are carried out seperately by the two institutions.[19] In 1999, the GWSC was replaced with the publicly owned Ghana Water Company Ltd. (GWCL). At the same time, the responsibility for urban water supply and sanitation was decentralized to the local level.[2]

Recent developments

To overcome the lack of coordination between the numerous institutions, the Ghanaian Minister of Water Resources, Works and Housing launched a National Water Policy (NWP) at the end of February 2008, which focuses on the three strategic areas: (i) water resources management; (ii) urban water supply and (iii) community water and sanitation.

Although the sector has made substantial progress, a lack of coherence in policy formulation resulted in a multitude of implementation strategies which created new problems. The NWP thus aims at formulating a comprehensive sector policy which includes all relevant actors in the sector. According to the minister, the NWP could make it easier for development partners to provide the necessary support to the sector.[20]

The NWP has been prepared by the Ghanaian Water Resources Commission (WRC) since 2002 and is based on the Ghanaian constitution of 1992, the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS), international agreements and conventions and other national programmes.[21]

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

Map of Ghana

Policy and regulation

At the moment, a number of institutions exist to supervise and regulate water supply and sanitation. The whole legal framework is intended to base itself on the Ghana Poverty Reduction Stategy (GPRS), the Millennium Development Goals targets and coordination of the Government with donor assistance.[22]

General sector policies for both rural and urban areas are set by the Water Directorate within the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing. Furthermore, the ministry solicites funding from external support agencies, monitors the sector and advises the cabinet.[23]. The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development and Environment also influences the sector through its responsibilities concerning decentralization or in the framework of infrastructural development projects.

Two commissions were created in 1997 for regulating the sector:[24] The Public Utilities Regulatory Commission (PURC) has been developed to formulate and approve appropiate pricing mechanisms aiming at full cost-recovery, since the government began to phase out the subsidisation of water services in 2003.[12] The PURC has no authority over community-managed water systems and only regulates urban water and sanitation services. Besides the provision of tariff guidelines and the examination and approvement of tariffs, it protects the interests of consumers and providers, promotes fair competition and initiates, conducts and monitors standards concerning the provided service.

Wheras PURC is responsible for economic regulation of urban water supply and sanitation, the Water Resources Commission (WRC) regulates water resources: It is in charge of licensing water abstraction and wastewater discharges.[23]

Service provision

Urban areas

In urban areas, the Ghana Water Company Ltd. (GWCL) is responsible for providing, distributing and conserving water for domestic, public and industrial purposes. Moreover, the company is mandated to establish, operate and control sewerage systems in Ghana. Before the creation of the regulatory agencies and the outsourcing of provision in rural areas in the 1990s, the institution executed and monitored the complete Ghanaian water supply and sanitation sector.[25]

Since the early 1990s, local private companies began to overtake services like meter installation, customer billing and revenue collection. In the framework of the urban water project, private operators help to improve GWCL's performance and rehabilitate and extend the infrastructure.[26]

In October 2006, a five year management contract was signed between GWCL and Aqua Vitens Rand Ltd (AVRL), a joint venture of the Dutch Vitens Rand water services BV and the Ghanaian Aqua Vitra Ltd. The main objectives of this private sector participation are to

  • extend the reliable water supply especially to low income areas
  • make potable water affordable for low income consumers
  • support cost recovery
  • ensure investments based on low cost and concession financing
  • support further involvement of the private sector
  • reduce non-revenue water
  • increase water treatment

The project is financed by the World Bank, the Nordic Development Fund and the Republic of Ghana (see below).[27]

In March 2008, severe water shortages in Accra were reported, leading the minister for water resources, works and housing to review if AVRL works in compliance with the management contract. However, he explained that the reason for the shortages were unforeseen power outgages at two water treatment plants in Weija and Kpong. According to him, the overall situation will improve notably until the end of 2008 due to several new boreholes and more stable power supply.[28]

Rural areas

Rope pump close to Paga, Upper East Region

The Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) is in charge of coordinating and facilitating the implementation of the National Community Water and Sanitation Programme (NCWSP) in rural areas, which is carried out directly by the communities and their District Assemblies. The CWSA was created in 1994 in the framework of the Ghana decentralization policy and became autonomous in 1998. The institution does not directly construct, operate and maintain utilities for water supply and sanitation. Instead, its role is to coordinate the work of a number of actors which carry out the services in rural areas, including public sector organizations, local beneficiary communities, private sector organizations and NGOs. The CWSA is also expected to ensure that financial support from development partners is effectively used and to provide rural areas and small towns with hygiene education. To carry out its tasks, the agency operates ten regional offices besides its head office in Accra.[25]

In communities with less than 50,000 inhabitants, water supply systems are owned and managed by the respective community on a demand driven approach. According to the NCWSP, these systems do not get any cross subsidies and 5% of the cost of providing the facility is paid by the operating community.[29] Therefore, the rural communities and small towns form gender-balanced voluntary groups which are represented by elected water and sanitation boards which set tariffs and maintain the systems.[23] Communities and the CWSA are enabled to contract external actors, like private sector consultants or NGOs to provide technical assistance, goods or services.[30] Local companies are regularly encouraged in the provision of boreholes and hand-dug wells and local artisans use to provide household latrines.[26]

Economic efficiency

Non-revenue water

According to the Water Sector Restructuring Secretariat, which was created in 1997 to oversee the process of private participation,[31] approximately 50% of the distributed water in Ghana is lost due to leakage and illegal connections.[32] According to a Ghanaian radio station, a survey showed that 3,000 out of 15,000 connecions were illegal while 20 minor leaks were found.[33] Furthermore, most of those connected to water supply do not pay their bills.[34] At least at the end of the 1990s, the Ghanaian government participated in that poor payment culture.[35]

Labor productivity

It is estimated that in 2006, approximately 60 employees were responsible for 1,000 connections. This figure is extremely high compared both to international and regional levels.[36] International good practice is less than 4 employees per 1,000 connections.

Financial aspects

Tariffs and cost recovery

Water and sanitation tariffs in Ghana are too low to recover the costs of the services. Between 1990 and 1997, the average tariff in Ghana's urban areas was in the range of US$0.10 and US$0.15 per m³. At that time, the Government was not willing to approve major tariff increases. However, the situation changed with the creation of the regulatory agency PURC which autonomously examines and approves tariffs of public services, resulting in an average tariff of about US$0.50 in 2004.[35] In 2006, GWCL's tariff for the first 20m³ consumed was at US$0.55 per m³, whereas US$0.76 were charged for each m³ exceeding 20m³ within a month.[37][38]

According to CWSA's policy, the tariff in rural areas should recover the supply cost of the service, including operation, maintenance, major repairs, replacements and extension to new areas. Tariffs are set directly by the District Assemblies in rural areas.[23] However, the supply cost should be low enough to not result in a tariff of more than US$1 per m³. A study conducted in five community-managed piped systems in the Ashanti region found an average tariff of about US$0.60 per m³ in 2003, which actually covers between 57 and 77% of the full supply cost.[39]

Investment and financing

Since the economic efficiency as well as cost recovery in the sector are extremely low, water supply and sanitation in Ghana relies strongly on external funding. It has been reported that 90% of the total investment in the sector in the 1990s has been made by external agencies,[40] which have contributed about US$500 million for the sector between 1990 and 2003. It is worth mentioning that sanitation generally receives much less attention.[41] Despite the strong engagement of international development banks and agencies, the main constraint of the sector is a lack of financial resources. It is estimated that only the expansion and rehabilitation of the urban infrastructure requires investments of US$1.3 billion.[12]

External cooperation

African Development Bank (ADB)

The African Development Bank (ADB) contributes to the Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP) with a loan of US$69 million, while the Government of Ghana provides US$8.6 million. The project was approved by the ADB in 2006 and is expected to be implemented within five years. In this time, two treatment plants and eight pumping stations are supposed to be built. Moreover, sewerage networks and sanitation facilities will be extended and rehabilitated. The project also supports environmental measures, institutional strengthening, engineering services and project management.[42]

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) at present supports the water supply and sanitation sector in Ghana's northern regions through three projects:

  1. CIDA contributes US$11 million to the gender-balanced District Capacity Building Project (DISCAP), which aims at strengthening local capacities to manage water and sanitation resources and in that way enabling local government bodies to provide water supply and sanitation services. DISCAP started in 2000 and will end in 2008.[43]
  2. The agency provides US$16.4 million for the Northern Region Water Sanitation Project (NORWASP), which started in 1999 and is expected to end in 2009. The main objective of the gender-balanced project is to increase access to water and sanitation on a demand-driven approach. At the end of the project, up to 250,000 communities in the eastern corridor section of the northern region are expected to have access to safe drinking water, including 420 which own and manage their new water systems.[44]
  3. The Northern Region Small Towns (NORST) project, which is implemeted from 2004 to 2014 is supported by CIDA with US$30 million. The project is expected to establish water supply and sanitation services in up to 30 small towns.[45]

World Bank

The World Bank supports both rural and urban water supply in Ghana.

Community Water and Sanitation Program (CWSP)

The Second Community Water and Sanitation Program was initiated in 2000 with support of a World Bank IDA credit of US$21.9 million, aiming at increasing access and supporting effective and sustained use of improved community water supply and sanitation services in villages and small towns through a demand-driven approach. It built on lessons learned from the first Community Water and Sanitation Program which had been carried out from 1994 to 2000. A large-scale decentralization approach in the planning, implementation and management of water supply and sanitation in Ghana was one of the main characteristics of the second program. Moreover, the communities were given technical assistance and hygiene education. Gender-balanced water and saniation committees were set up to engage actively and include NGOs, private sector actors and the District Assemblies. As a result of the program, which ended in 2004, almost 800,000 people were served with potable water and almost 6,000 households and 440 schools were provided with latrines.[46]

Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Project

The Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Project was approved by the World Bank in 2004 with a loan of US$26 million. In 2007 the World Bank decided to support the project with an additional credit of US$10 million. The German development agency GTZ contributes to the project with US$400,000, while the Government of Ghana provides US$4.6 million.

The project will end in 2009 and aims at increasing water supply and sanitation access to small towns in six Ghanaian regions, providing about 500,000 people with water supply facilities and about 50,000 people with sanitary facilities. Therefore, the project supports the planning, construction and rehabilitation of water and sanitation systems in small towns and provides hygiene promotion, training and technical assistance. In addition, the CWSA is supported with a management fee equal to five percent of the funds disbursed under the project to support the incremental costs to start the project.[47]

Urban Water Project

In 2004, the World Bank's Board approved a credit of US$103 million for the Urban Water Project, which was later turned into a grant. The Nordic Development Fund contributes another US$5 million, while the Government of Ghana provides providing remaining US$12 million of the US$120 million project.[48]

The main objectives of the program which will end in 2010, are to (i) significantly increase access to water supply systems in the urban areas of Ghana with an emphasis on improving the service for the urban poor and (ii) restoring long term financial stability, viability and sustainability of the GWCL. It aims at the extension and rehabilitation of infrastructure especially in low-income areas and provides technical assistance and training. Moreover, the Urban Water Project supports private sector participation and thus contributed to the management contract between GWCL and AVRL.[49]

References

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    World Health Organization (2006). "Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Coverage Estimates Improved Drinking Sanitation" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    All data are based on Ghana Statistical Service (September 2004). Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2003. Accra. p. 492. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) and World Health Organization (WHO). "World Health Survey 2003". Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
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  3. ^ Doe, Henry Wonder (2007), Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) (PDF), Stockholm: Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), retrieved 2008-03-27, p. 32
  4. ^ 1 Ghanaian Cedi = 0.0001132 US Dollar (2006-12-31); Source: http://www.oanda.com/
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  8. ^ Nyarko, K. B. (2006). "Cost recovery of community-managed piped water systems in the Ashanti region, Ghana". Water and Environmental Journal. 21 (2). Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management (CIWEM): 92–99. ISSN 1747-6585. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 93
  9. ^ AMCW, AfDB, EUWI, WSP, UNDP (October 2006). "Getting Africa on track to meet the MDGS on water and sanitation. A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  12. ^ a b c d Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). "African Economic Outlook 2007 - Ghana Country Note" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 294
  13. ^ AMCW, AfDB, EUWI, WSP, UNDP (October 2006). "Getting Africa on track to meet the MDGS on water and sanitation. A Status Overview of Sixteen African Countries" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), p. 25
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  16. ^ Adu-Ahyiah, Maxwell. Small Scale Wastewater Treatment in Ghana (a Scenerio) (PDF). Lund. Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite conference}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |booktitle= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help), p. 1-2
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  18. ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Ghana Country Overview" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 4-5
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  20. ^ Appiah, Innocent (2008-02-28), "Govt tackles water issue", Ghanaian Times{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  21. ^ Ghanaian Water Resources Commission. "National Water Policy". Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ Water-Aid Ghana (2005), Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. (PDF), Accra, retrieved 2008-03-26{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link), p. 28-29
  23. ^ a b c d WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help), p. 5
  24. ^ Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) (August 2004). "Strategic Investment Plan 2005 - 2015" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help), p. 8-9
  25. ^ a b Community Water and Sanitation Agency (CWSA) (August 2004). "Strategic Investment Plan 2005 - 2015" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help), p. 9-11
  26. ^ a b Water-Aid Ghana (2005), Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. (PDF), Accra, retrieved 2008-03-26{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link), p. 19
  27. ^ Doe, Henry Wonder (2007), Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) (PDF), Stockholm: Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), retrieved 2008-03-27, p. 35-36
  28. ^ Benson, Ivy (2008-03-12), "Government maintains Aqua Vitens deal…to manage water supply in the country", The Ghanaian Chronicle, retrieved 2008-03-27{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  29. ^ Nyarko, Kwabena Biritwum (2004), "Institutional challenges for small towns' water supply delivery in Ghana", in Chaoka, T. R.; et al. (eds.), Water Resources of Arid and Semi Arid Regions, International Conference, London: Taylor and Francis Group, pp. 217–226, ISBN 04 1535 913 9 {{citation}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |editor-first= (help), p. 217-218.
  30. ^ Water-Aid Ghana (2005), Assessment of national sanitation policies: Ghana case. Final report. (PDF), Accra, retrieved 2008-03-26{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link), p. 31
  31. ^ Doe, Henry Wonder (2007), Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) (PDF), Stockholm: Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), retrieved 2008-03-27, p. 33
  32. ^ Water Sector Restructuring Secretariat, Water for Ghana website, retrieved 2008-03-27.
  33. ^ "Illegal water connections hampering GWCL", Kessben FM radio station, 2008-03-11, retrieved 2008-03-27.
  34. ^ Abayie, Henrietta (2008-03-10), "Few People Pay For Water", Daily Guide Newspaper, retrieved 2008-03-27.
  35. ^ a b WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help), p. 4
  36. ^ Kauffmann, Céline (November 2007). "Stocktaking of the water and sanitation sector and private sector involvement in selected African countries" (PDF). NEPAD-OECD Africa Investment Initiative Roundtable. Retrieved 2008-03-27. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Doe, Henry Wonder (2007), Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply in. Urban Ghana: The case of North Teshie. (EESI Master Thesis) (PDF), Stockholm: Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), retrieved 2008-03-27, p. 32
  38. ^ 1 Ghanaian Cedi = 0.0001132 US Dollar (2006-12-31); Source: http://www.oanda.com/
  39. ^ Nyarko, K. B. (2006). "Cost recovery of community-managed piped water systems in the Ashanti region, Ghana". Water and Environmental Journal. 21 (2). Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management (CIWEM): 92–99. ISSN 1747-6585. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ African Development Fund (October 2005). "Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP). Appraisal Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help), p. 6
  41. ^ WaterAid. "National Water Sector Assessment, Ghana" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-26. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help), p. 3
  42. ^ African Development Fund (October 2005). "Accra Sewerage Improvement Project (ASIP). Appraisal Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  43. ^ Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). "District Capacity Building Project (DISCAP)". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  44. ^ Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). "Northern Region Water Sanitation Project (NORWASP)". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  45. ^ Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). "Northern Region Small Towns (NORST)". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  46. ^ World Bank. "A Demand-Driven Approach in Service-Delivery: The Community Water and Sanitation Program in Ghana". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  47. ^ World Bank. "Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Project". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  48. ^ World Bank. "Ghana: World Bank Turns US$103 Million Ghana Urban Water Credit To Grant". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  49. ^ World Bank. "Urban Water Project". Retrieved 2008-03-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Policy setting

Econmic regulation

Service provision

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