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Archaeology and the Book of Mormon

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The Book of Mormon tells of three principal migrations of small groups of people who traveled, by boat, one circa 1000 B.C. and the other two circa 600 B.C. to what are now known as the Americas. These travelers and their descendants included the Jaredites, Nephites, Lamanites, and the descendants of Mulek also known as Mulekites. The Book of Mormon describes the rise and fall of the Jaredites and the Nephites. Latter Day Saints generally believe that the Book of Mormon describes historical events, however the existence of these civilizations is not accepted by mainstream historians or archaeologists.

There is a general consensus amongst members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints that the people described in the Book of Mormon lived somewhere on either North or South America,[1] but also that the purpose of the book is not to document the history of the people described within it.[2] Authorities of the LDS Church emphasize that the Book of Mormon is primarily a religious record, although they recognize that it is also a historical work.[3]

These particular purposes of this book are echoed by the Smithsonian Institution's response to inquiries about the Book of Mormon, which states that the Institute "considers the Book of Mormon a religious document and not a scientific guide," but also states that it "has found no archaeological evidence to support [the book's] claims."[4][5] Similarly, the National Geographic Society has stated "Archaeologists and other scholars have long probed the hemisphere's past and the society does not know of anything found so far that has substantiated the Book of Mormon."[6]

LDS cultural belief regarding Book of Mormon archaeology

Traditional views of New World population

Most members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that ancient Israelites traveled to the Americas. Some church members believe that the three groups mentioned in the Book of Mormon exclusively populated an empty North and South American Continent. Indeed, this was the majority belief within the church from the founding of the religion until the twentieth century, and this view was incorporated by Orson Pratt into his footnotes for the 1879 edition of the Book of Mormon. This view implies an essentially empty America into which the Jaredites came after leaving the Tower of Babel. However, the LDS Church never gave an official interpretation of the Book of Mormon geography, and the geographical footnotes were removed from the 1920 and all subsequent editions of the Book of Mormon. Beginning in the early twentieth century, the traditional claim that the migrations described in the Book of Mormon were the means by which the Western Hemisphere was populated became less prevalent. Whereas early members of the church had used the terms "Lamanite" and "Indian" interchangeably, a 1938 church study guide asserted that "all the Book of Mormon text requires" is a "Hebrew origin for at least a part of Indian ancestry".[7] In the mid-twentieth century Hugh Nibley proposed that all pre-Columbian remains need not belong to Book of Mormon people, and that the notion that the "only people permitted in the hemisphere before Columbus were either descendants of Lehi or of Jared and his brother" was incorrect.[8] John Sorenson demonstrated that the change from the traditional Mormon teaching to the more limited geographical interpretation continued to make headway, and that the majority of Mormon authors had come to believe in the new limited geographic interpretation by the mid-twentieth century.[9]

LDS academic views of New World population

LDS scholars, however, have long taken a more critical view regarding the assumption that no other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.

  • In 1927, Janne M. Sjödahl stated that "students of the Book of Mormon should be cautioned against the error of supposing that all the American Indians are the descendants of Lehi, Mulek and their companions."[10]
  • In 1938 a church study guide for the Book of Mormon stated that "the Book of Mormon deals only with the history and expansion of three small colonies which came to America, and it does not deny or disprove the possibility of other immigrations, which probably would be unknown to its writers."[11]
  • From 1952 onward, LDS scholar Hugh Nibley repeatedly argued that the assumption that there were no other people present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival might be incorrect.
  • In 1980 Nibley, referring to archaeological evidence, stated that the assumption of an empty New World represented a "simplistic reading" of the Book of Mormon.[12] By the middle of the twentieth century, most LDS authors held the belief that the Book of Mormon events took place within a limited region in Mesoamerica, and that others were present on the continent at the time of Lehi's arrival.[13]
  • This geographical and population model was formally published in the official church magazine, The Ensign, in September 1984,[14] and was followed by a book on the subject by LDS anthropologist John L. Sorenson in 1985.[15]

LDS efforts to establish Book of Mormon archaeology

Early attempts

Commencing in the early 1840s, Latter Day Saints sought to support the Book of Mormon with John Lloyd Stephens’ bestseller Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. Stephens’ two volume work was promoted by well meaning church members, as an essential guide to the ruins of Book of Mormon cities. Archaeological endeavors stemming from this tradition have led to disappointment and confusion among the faithful. In the fall of 1842, a Mormon newspaper article alleged that the ruins of Quirigua, discovered by Stephens, were the very ruins of Zarahemla or some other Book of Mormon city.[16]It is now known that these Central American ruins date more recent than Book of Mormon times. Other Mormon newspaper articles followed, including one published shortly after the death of Joseph Smith. Every Latter-day Saint was encouraged to read Stephens' bestseller and to regard the stone ruins described in it, as relating to the Book of Mormon.[17] Ironically, there is no explicit mention in the Book of Mormon of any Nephite building made of hewn stone. Timber, earth, and metal working are repeatedly mentioned[18]. Who wrote the newspaper articles is not certain. The opinions of these articles nevertheless inaugurated a romance which took the interests and imaginations of generations of Latter-day Saints thousands of miles away from the place where Joseph Smith said he obtained the Nephite record. Other Latter-day Saints have based their conclusions on fraudulent archaeological data.[19] In recent years, this has caused LDS scholars to take a very critical approach to the work of other LDS researchers on the subject. John Sorenson states that "LDS scholars themselves have attacked the same shoddy scholarship that makes Book of Mormon archaeology a playground for hobbyists."[20]It should be noted, however, that even with LDS methods becoming more erudite, the Central American Zarahemla tradition, which is not clearly based on Mormon scripture, continues as a major LDS paradigm.

Modern approach

Several candidates considered likely by LDS researchers[who?] have been proposed for the Middle Eastern sites mentioned in the Book of Mormon. However, fewer distinct landmarks are agreed upon relative to the Book of Mormon’s American setting. LDS scholars readily accept traditional biblical sites (e.g. “Carmel”[21], but there are those who are unwilling to accept the only New World Book of Mormon landmark, addressed in LDS scripture, (“Cumorah”[22], because it does not fit the popular Mesoamerican model. Not accepting this landmark, makes LDS study in the Western Hemisphere less definite - without a single fixed reference. Because of confusion brought about by attempts to establish a New World archaeology, most Mormon scholars now take a different approach: analyze archaeological findings for parallels and correlations with information found in the Book of Mormon. Although LDS scholars have found no indisputable proof of the book's historicity, they have accumulated a large amount of what they believe is supporting evidence.

In addition to the search for supporting physical evidence, John L. Sorenson has attempted to apply a "flesh-and-blood" reality to the cultures in the Book of Mormon. This approach uses what the authors refer to as "contextual knowledge" in order to establish a plausible setting for the cultural events of the Book of Mormon within the context of known Mesoamerican historical settings. The goal is to determine places and times at which Book of Mormon events occurred that correlate with similar events in the Mesoamerican historical record.[23]

From the mid-1950s onwards, the Church-owned Brigham Young University has sponsored (under the banner of the New World Archaeological Foundation, or NWAF) a large number of archaeological excavations in Mesoamerica, with a focus on the Mesoamerican time period known as the Preclassic (earlier than c. AD 200).[24] The results of these and other investigations, while producing valuable archaeological data, have not led to any widespread acceptance by non-LDS archaeologists of the Book of Mormon account.[25] They have, however, led to increased respect for LDS archaeological efforts in the field.[26]

Genetic studies

The Book of Mormon tells of the people of Jared, consisting of several families from the Tower of Babel, who migrated to America from the Old World before Abraham's time; a group including Lehi's family who migrated to America from Jerusalem around 600 B.C.; and another group (the people of Mulek) who migrated to America from Jerusalem about 8 years later. The Book of Mormon makes no overt assertions regarding the migration or non-migration of other groups to America, though an introductory paragraph added to the book identified the Lamanites as being "among the principal ancestors of the American Indians."[27] In April 1929, President Anthony W. Ivins of the LDS church's First Presidency cautioned church members, “We must be careful in the conclusions that we reach. The Book of Mormon teaches the history of three distinct peoples … who came from the old world to this continent. It does not tell us that there was no one here before them. It does not tell us that people did not come after. And so if discoveries are made which suggest differences in race origins, it can very easily be accounted for, and reasonably, for we do believe that other people came to this continent.”[28]

Nevertheless, many people have examined existing genetic data in order to determine its relationship to the people described in the Book of Mormon. Several studies have been performed in which DNA from modern indigenous Americans has been examined in an attempt to determine Native American origins. Several authors have published works that suggest that current studies of genetic anthropology using DNA evidence do not provide support for a Semitic origin of New World populations as suggested by traditional views of the Book of Mormon.[29][30] Other researchers warn against using genetics to attempt to prove or disprove the historicity of the Book of Mormon, citing a lack of source genes and the improbability of tracing Israelite DNA even if it was present.[31][32]

Apologetics and archaeology

Many believing Book of Mormon researchers have in the late twentieth century shifted their focus from "apologetics" to "studies."[citation needed] This has generally resulted in better scholarship among believers[original research?] as researchers have focused more on real answers than on talking points, though ironically this shift of focus has provided better material for apologists[citation needed]. In fact, a recent evangelical publication lamented the lack of serious scholarship responding to the "sophistication and erudition" of LDS apologetic scholarship.[33] For Book of Mormon researchers "archaeology and The Book of Mormon" is no longer driven solely by the apologist/skeptic debate, but by a serious research interest in the Book of Mormon itself.

The following are some of the specific reasons most Mormon apologists do not place much emphasis on apologetics through archaeology:

  1. The Prophet of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints encourages conversion through faith and personal revelation[34]
  2. Though some consensuses are being formed, Book of Mormon studies are still in their youth.
  3. Both casual LDS and non-LDS researchers tend to make errors of assumption because
    • Some interpretations of the text of The Book of Mormon suggest there may have been other people and cultures in the same lands at the same time, possibly large populations and many different cultures.[35]
    • The Book of Mormon narrative says that the Lamanites hunted down and destroyed the surviving Nephites and conceivably most evidence of the Nephite civilization and culture.

State of archaeological research

A great deal of data have been accumulated over more than two hundred years of American archaeological research. While the completeness of this research suffers in comparison with Old World archaeology, substantial insights into pre-Columbian civilizations, technologies, movements, and history have been established. These include the Formative Mesoamerican civilizations such as the (Pre-Classic) Maya, Olmec and Zapotec, which flourished during the approximate period the events related in the Book of Mormon are said to have occurred.

The Book of Mormon describes three heavily populated, literate, technologically advanced[36] civilizations. The record primarily deals with the Nephites and the Lamanites, who existed in the Americas from about 600 BC to AD 400. It also deals with the rise and fall of the Jaredite nation, which the Book of Mormon claims existed in the Americas starting at the time of the Tower of Babel (which many Biblical literalist scholars date to between 3100 BC and 2200 BC) until as late as 400 BC.

Mainstream historians and archaeologists do not recognise the existence of these people as historical fact, and it is noted that there have not been identified any specific archaeological artifacts that link to the "supposedly advanced and widespread Nephite civilization" described in the Book of Mormon.[37]

Archaeological evidence of large populations

While the book does not state whether or not these three civilizations were the sole inhabitants of the ancient Americas, most LDS scholars have interpreted certain parts of the text as being indicative of the presence of and interactions with other groups of people whose origins are not stated.[38] Though no complete population counts are given in the book, there are indications given of the number of people present in the Nephite civilization at various points in time. Four centuries after the arrival of Lehi's party, Zeniff's small Nephite colony is attacked by the Lamanites in a battle in which three thousand forty-three Lamanites are said to have died (Mosiah 9:18). In 87 B.C., a battle is said to have claimed the lives of over nineteen thousand Nephites and Lamanites. At one point in the history portrayed, some Mormon scholars estimate that the population described in these Book of Mormon civilization(s) ranged between 300,000 and 1.5 million people.[39] For example, the Book of Mormon asserts specifically that in just one battle near the hill Cumorah about two hundred and thirty thousand soldiers were killed on one side alone (Mormon 6:12-15). By 385 A.D., the number of Nephite soldiers killed is estimated to be close to a quarter million people.[40] The Jaredite civilization was likely much larger: the final war that destroyed the Jaredite civilization killed at least two million men [41].

The Book of Mormon states that there were pre-Columbian peoples that were white, literate, had knowledge of Old World languages, and possessed Old World derived writing systems.[42] They smelted metal and made tools and weapons of iron, steel, and brass.[43] They owned domesticated horses and cattle. They possessed chariots.[44] The people covered the "entire land." The civilization described by these passages and scores of others in the Book of Mormon should yield certain types of discoveries in the pre-Colombian archaeological record.[45] The lack of evidence of the Book of Mormon civilizations is problematic for the Book of Mormon. LDS scholars answer that there is a growing body of evidence of the book's authenticity. These evidences, however, are not accepted by mainstream archaeologists.[46]

Based upon Book of Mormon population estimates, the civilizations described would be roughly the size of a few other archaeologically prominent civilizations—Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Maya—which also thrived at about the same time as putative Book of Mormon civilizations[original research?]. These civilizations left numerous artifacts in the form of ruins, tombs, temples, pyramids, roads, arches, walls, frescos, statues, vases, coins, etc.[citation needed] Skeptics argue that if large-scale and long-lived civilizations such as those mentioned in the Book of Mormon had existed in the New World, then solid physical evidence of their remains should appear in the archaeological record of the Americas. Mormon scholars[who?] reply that evidence of these civilizations has indeed been found, and that it is simply not accepted as such by the mainstream archaeological community.[citation needed] One LDS researcher points to settlement patterns that appear to correlate with those indicated in the Book of Mormon in both location and date.[47]

The challenge of determining a New World geographic location

There are no groups involved in primary research on Book of Mormon archaeology outside of the Mormon academic community. No archaeological finding, as yet, has been accepted by the non-Mormon archaeological community as indisputable evidence that the book has a historical connection to Native Americans.

The New World portion of the geographical record of the Book of Mormon does not conform to most of the settings proposed by LDS researchers. Many LDS scholars promote the Mesoamerican Tehuantapec setting, but this setting is not without significant difficulties. Non-LDS researchers suggest that there are few, if any, definitive indicators within the text itself to consistently place it within any real-world setting.[48]

Similar to Old World archaeology, the archaeological record of the Americas is incomplete and faces many challenges. Of the thousands of pre-Columbian archaeological sites presently known across the continent, only a small number have been documented in exhaustive detail. In addition, some archaeological sites have been compromised and even destroyed outright by ongoing natural processes and the encroachment of urbanization and agricultural land-use. An example of this trend is the Early and Preclassic Mayan archaeological site of Kaminaljuyu. Of the hundreds of temple mounds that once existed there, most have been destroyed by the expansion of Guatemala City.[49]

Much of North American prehistory is generally misunderstood because of common misperceptions, stereotypes, and lack of preservation. For example, many are not aware of the existence of stone and mortar Maya cities in Mexico, structured stone and clay mortar pueblos of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples of the Southwest, or complex centers of flat-topped platform mounds of the Mississippian culture in the Eastern United States.[50] Despite the existence of these complex cultures in North America, many indiscriminately identify the majority of Native Americans as migratory (hunters/gatherers and tepee or wigwam dwellers).

Book of Mormon compared to Biblical archaeology

Both LDS and non-LDS scholars compare the state of Book of Mormon archaeology with Biblical archaeology, with both groups acknowledging that the number of locatable places in the Book of Mormon pales when compared to the number found in the Bible. The advantage that Biblical archaeology has is that the geographical setting for the Bible is already known, or at least is presumed endemically by tradition. LDS scholars point out that one challenge for establishing Book of Mormon archaeology in the New World is that ancient location names in the proposed Mesoamerican setting have not carried over to the present day and are therefore difficult to verify.[51]This assumes, of course, that Mesoamerica is the proper local to search for Book of Mormon place names. The place name “Onidah” (Alma 47:5) is essentially the same as Oneida, both an indigenous people and a place name in New York State. Similarly, the name “Onandagus”, "Omandagus", or “Onendagus” reportedly given by Joseph Smith in connection with a figure of Book of Mormon heritage[52], sounds very much like Onondaga, one of the five nations that composed the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Haudenosaunee means “the people of the long house”. These early peoples of New York are known to have built houses of timber.

Existing ancient records of the New World

Similar to frequent and massive losses of ancient writings in the Old World (in deliberate or accidental fires, in wars, earthquakes, floods, etc), much of the literature of the Pre-Columbian Maya was also destroyed during the Spanish conquest in the 1500s.[53] On this point, Michael Coe noted:

"Nonetheless, our knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and Pilgrim's Progress)."[54]

However, in addition to the four surviving pre-Columbian Maya codices mentioned by Coe, there are also a number of documents dating from the 16th century conquest and shortly after, in which indigenous scribes or Spanish interlocutors recorded facets of Maya (and other) historical accounts and beliefs.[citation needed]

The Maya civilization also left behind a vast corpus of inscriptions (upwards of ten thousand are known[55]) written in the Maya script, the earliest of which date from around the 3rd century BC with the majority written in the Classic Period (c. 250 - 900 AD).[56] Mayanist scholarship is now able to decipher a large number of these inscriptions. These inscriptions are mainly concerned with the activities of Mayan rulers and the commemoration of significant events, with the oldest known Long Count date corresponding to December 7, 36 B.C. being recorded on Chiapa de Corzo Stela 2 in central Chiapas.[57] It has been claimed that none of these inscriptions make contact with events, places, rulers or timeline of Book of Mormon.[58]

One LDS researcher uses as supporting evidence ancient Mesoamerican accounts that appear to parallel events recorded in the Book of Mormon.[59]

Joseph Smith's statements regarding Book of Mormon geography

Joseph Smith's published statements indicate that Book of Mormon peoples or their descendants, migrated from “the lake country of America” (near Lake Ontario) to Mexico and Central America.[60] In 1841 Joseph Smith read Stephens’ Incidents of Travel in Central America. Smith held Stephens’ work in high regard and recommended it.[61] However, Stephens’ bestseller did not change Smith’s position that Book of Mormon events took place in northern America, in lands occupied by the United States[62]. In his “AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES” editorial of July, 1842, Joseph Smith corroborates wars described in the Book of Mormon with archaeological finds in northern America. Joseph Smith associates earth, timber and metal works found in northern America (presumably artifacts of mound builder societies) with implements and constructions described in the Book of Mormon.[63]As much as Joseph Smith approved of Stephens’ work, he only makes minor mention of it, and then only to conclude that the peoples of Central America are tied historically to the Book of Mormon. Smith does not actually say that Book of Mormon lands are to be found in Central America. This assertion came later in several unsigned newspaper articles, published in the fall of 1842. These articles were likely written by other church members. The 1842 Times and Seasons editorials, written by Joseph Smith, are readily identified as they end with his “ED”. Joseph Smith had found it necessary to go into hiding for much of the fall that year[64]. Though he was still official editor of the Times and Seasons, it is doubtful that he was acting editor at the time. Published in the same issue as the unsigned “ZARAHEMLA” article with its erroneous claims about Quirigau, we find a signed epistle to the church from the Mormon prophet in hiding. In Joseph Smith’s letter (canonized as the 128th section of the Doctrine and Covenants) the Book of Mormon land Cumorah is referenced among other locations of significance near the Finger Lakes.[65] Several earlier statements by Joseph Smith, indicate that events described in the Book of Mormon took place in lands occupied by the United States of America. In an 1833 letter to N.C. Saxton, Smith wrote:

"The Book of Mormon is a record of the forefathers of our western tribes of Indians; having been found through the ministration of an holy angel, and translated into our own language by the gift and power [of] God, after having been hid up in the earth for the last fourteen hundred years, containing the word of God which was delivered unto them. By it we learn that our western tribes of Indians are descendants from that Joseph that was sold into Egypt, and that the land [of] America is a promised land unto them, and unto it, all the tribes of Israel will come, with as many of the Gentiles as shall comply with the requisitions of the new covenant. But the tribe of Judah will return to old Jerusalem."[66]

The expression, “our western tribes of Indians” refers to Indian tribes who lived west, or were pushed west from the east coast of the United States by European expansion. LDS missionaries were sent to these peoples in the early days of the Church. Latter-day scripture refers to these peoples as “Lamanites”[67]. Several passages in LDS scripture associate these native peoples with peoples of the Book of Mormon[68]. LDS scripture teaches that the land of their Book of Mormon ancestors (now occupied by the United States of America) was ordained to become a land “free unto all…”[69]. The ancient land of their inheritance is, according to LDS scripture, associated with the land of “New Jerusalem.”[70]. New Jerusalem, “the city of Zion” is, according to LDS scripture to be built in northern America [71].

On June 4, 1834, during the Zion's Camp trek through Illinois, Joseph Smith stated that the group was "wandering over the plains of the Nephites, recounting occasionally the history of the Book of Mormon, roving over the mounds of that once beloved people of the Lord, picking up their skulls & their bones, as proof of its divine authenticity…"[72] Joseph Smith came to believe that the Maya ruins on the Yucatán Peninsula discovered in the late 1830s, offered evidence in support of the Book of Mormon's authenticity. After reading about the accounts, he proclaimed the ruins were likely Nephite or belonging to “the ancient inhabitants of America treated of in the Book of Mormon”.[73]In view of the position that ancient peoples migrated from the north into Mexico and Central America, Joseph Smith’s linking of Mesoamerican artifacts with “ancient inhabitants …of …the Book of Mormon” is not inconsistent with his statements placing Book of Mormon lands in northern America. Just prior to publishing the AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES editorial (citing northern American evidence of Book of Mormon history), Joseph Smith recorded:

"Messrs. Stephens and Catherwood have succeeded in collecting in the interior of America a large amount of relics of the Nephites, or the ancient inhabitants of America treated of in the Book of Mormon, which relics have recently been landed in New York." (History of the Church Volume 5, pg 44)

Stephens brought to New York hundreds of artifacts from Mayan sites. Among these were sculptures and architectural remnants. Shortly after arriving in New York, most of these relics were lost when the building that housed them was destroyed by fire. We know that much of what Stephens discovered dates more recent than Book of Mormon times. Assuming that the artifacts Stephens removed are, as Joseph Smith suggests, tied to the “ancient inhabitants of America treated of in the Book of Mormon” one would have to consider that the relics were produced by descendents of Book of Mormon peoples.

The first history of the Church was written in 1834 and 1835 by Oliver Cowdery, as a series of articles published serially in the Church's Messenger and Advocate. In this history, Cowdery stated that the final battle between the Nephites and the Lamanites occurred at the "Hill Cumorah," the very same Hill Cumorah in New York, where Joseph Smith said he obtained golden plates and other artifacts which were used to translate the Book of Mormon. These plates and artifacts were shown to only a few witnesses and never to the general public. The plates were later claimed to have been removed via divine means. Cowdery also identified the Jaredites' final battle as occurring in the same area as the Nephite/Lamanite final battle. Since Smith was an editor of the Messenger and Advocate and approved the history, all but proponents of limited South American and Mesoamerican geography theories believe it conclusively demonstrated Joseph Smith’s belief as well. In any case, evidence appears to show that Smith did not subscribe to the limited Mesoamerican and South American geography theories promoted by some LDS today.[74]Joseph Smith clearly advocated a northern American setting (near the Finger Lakes) for the Book of Mormon land Cumorah, hence Doctrine and Covenants 128:20.

Lucy Mack Smith, Joseph Smith’s mother, in her account of the coming forth of the Book of Mormon, says that the divine messenger called the hill where the plates were deposited the “hill of Cumorah” meaning “hill of” the Book of Mormon land “Cumorah”. In another account, Mother Smith says that young Joseph, referred to the hill using this description.[75] Joseph Smith’s preeminence as an authority on the Book of Mormon is evinced by the following account given by his mother:

"During our evening conversations, Joseph, would occasionally give us some of the most amusing recitals that could be imagined. He would describe the ancient inhabitants of this continent, their dress, mode of traveling, and the animals upon which they rode; their cities and buildings, with every particular; their mode of warfare; and also their religious worship. This he would do with as much ease, seemingly, as if he had spent his whole life among them."[76]

Efforts to associate Joseph Smith with the geographic notions of his contemporaries remain speculative. A note in the handwriting of Frederick G. Williams, one of Joseph Smith's counselors and scribes, asserts that Lehi's people landed in South America at thirty degrees south latitude.[77]Early LDS church leader, Orson Pratt also speculated that the Nephite landing site was on the coast of Chile near Valparaiso, but Pratt indicated that this hypothesis was arrived at by supposition, not divine revelation[78] There is no proof that William’s unsigned, undated writing represents a revelation given to Joseph Smith. An official statement by the LDS Church discourages Church members from making too much of the William’s document.[79]

Proposed Book of Mormon geographical setting

As with Bible studies, considerable effort in Book of Mormon studies has been focused on establishing a credible real world setting for the narrative. The Book of Mormon narrative begins at Jerusalem and follows a straightforward route along the Gulf of Suez, then across the Arabian Peninsula eastward, then apparently across the Pacific Ocean to the New World. Joseph Smith said he acquired the Book of Mormon in the state of New York. Between these two bookends, the setting for the main Book of Mormon narrative (and the sub-narrative of the Jaredites as told in the Book of Ether) is not obvious. There are two major divisions of Book of Mormon archaeology: The Old World and the New World.

Old World setting

Lehi Trail

The Old World narrative portion has proven much more fruitful for Mormon scholars where there are only two separate, but overlapping theories on the sites described in Lehi's journey to the Ocean, and the identification of locations, such as Nahom, that most Mormon scholars consider to be a confirmed location.[80]

Recent trends in Book of Mormon archaeology have focused on the Arabian peninsula in the Middle East as the early accounts in the Book of Mormon do describe actual locations. Many Mormon researchers are confident that evidence found in Yemen and Oman correlates with the account of Lehi's family's journey southward from Jerusalem to a place on the Arabian peninsula called "Bountiful" by Lehi, where they built ships to come to the Americas.[81]

Another Old World connection to the Book of Mormon occurred in 1997 when an ancient Judean stamp seal was identified as bearing the Hebrew form of the name "Malchiah son of Hammelech".[82] It is argued that this ancient Judean stamp seal belongs to Mulek, a man who is mentioned in the Bible and briefly identified in the Book of Mormon as the only surviving son of Zedekiah, king of Judah.[83]

Lehi's Arabian journey

The Book of Mormon describes a 600 B.C. journey of two families from Jerusalem along the east side of the Red Sea, then east across the Arabian Peninsula from 600 B.C. to 592 B.C. The details and locations encountered on this journey are very clearly described in the text.[84] Through most of the twentieth century, no information was available to confirm the narrative of an encampment at a continually running stream (River of Laman) in a valley (of Lemuel) at the "fount of the Red Sea," of a burial at a place "called Nahom," of a "Bountiful" place on the east side of the Arabian Peninsula where multiple narrative details occur, or of any other detail of Lehi's Arabian journey. In the late twentieth and the early twenty-first centuries, LDS researchers have located plausible candidates for each of these places that they believe correlate with the route of Lehi's journey. Field studies and research on these and other locations related to this subject are ongoing.

Based on extensive text analysis and field work in Arabia, a number of LDS researchers have concluded that plausible locations exist for every important Arabian site mentioned along the route of Lehi's journey. These include, the 'borders near and nearer' the Red Sea, Shazer (where they stopped to hunt), the most fertile parts, the trees from which Nephi made his bow, Nahom, Nephi’s eastwardly trail to Bountiful, and Bountiful.[85]

Most Mormon scholars believe that Lehi and his family interacted with locals during their travels, and even taught the gospel to those they came in contact with.[86] Some scholars even suggest that Lehi's group might have been in bondage to others in the area for a period of time.[87]

Lehi's Ancient home

Some speculate that Khirbet Beit Lei ("Ruin of the House of Lei") may have been a place where Lehi lived. In the area, there is a cave with ancient Hebrew writing that can be dated to the 6th Century B.C., and local legend holds that an ancient prophet named "Lei" lived and judged the people in the village at a time corresponding to the Book of Mormon narrative.

Some LDS historians and tourists believe this cave could have been the location where Lehi's sons stayed while trying to retrieve the Brass Plates, based on prophecies written on the walls of the cave. While there are some striking similarities and circumstantial evidence to support this view, there is no concrete evidence that "Lehi" and "Lei" are connected. Because the evidence is circumstantial, FARMS (Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies) has offered caution against tying the two together.[88]

The site remains a popular destination for LDS tourists.

People of Lihy

A tribe called the Lihyanites (“People of Lihy”) came into existence between the 6th and 4th century B.C. in the area of al-Bad on the Arabian peninsula. This tribe came to power and ruled this area for over 300 years. Prior to approximately 600 B.C., this area was under control of the Dedanites. Some LDS researchers have speculated that the passage of Lehi through this area around 600 B.C. had an influence upon an existing tribe, and that they adopted his name.[89] The Lihyanite civilization left behinds ruins, including a temple, a ceremonial font and inscriptions.[90] LDS scholars caution, however, that "far too little is yet known about early Arabia to strengthen a link with the historical Lehi, and other explanations are readily available for every point advanced, attractive and intriguing as they may be to Latter-day Saints."[91]

Valley of Lemuel/River of Laman

The Wadi Tayyib al-Ism, 72 miles by trail from Aqaba, is considered to be a plausible location for the River of Laman by some LDS researchers.[92] Another LDS researcher, citing problems with the proposed Wadi Tayyib al-Ism location, indicates that there are a number of other sites along the Gulf of Eilat's eastern shoreline that meet the requirements for this location, such as one of the wadis near the shore at Bir Marsha.[93]

Nahom

The Book of Mormon states that Ishmael, the patriarch of the family that left with Lehi's, was buried "in the place which was called Nahom" early in the journey from Jerusalem to Bountiful. It was also at Nahom that the travelers made a significant change in the direction of their travel from "south-southeast" to "nearly eastward." It is significant that "Nahom" is one of the few places mentioned in the Book of Mormon that was not named by Lehi, thus suggesting that this was a pre-existing place name. This Nahom has been equated by a number of LDS scholars with a location in Yemen referred to as "NHM" (Vowels in ancient Hebrew are spoken but not always written[94]). The name NHM is referred to in inscriptions found on altars dated to about 600 B.C.E.. The altars were found in a location consistent with the location at which Lehi's party would have had to change their route toward the east. The modern name of the location is "Nihm" and it is known as an ancient burial site and is south-southeast of Jerusalem. A turn nearly due east at this location (as described in the Book of Mormon) would bring Lehi's group to the place Bountiful on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula".[95][96]

There are a variety of challenges to the claim that Nahom correlates with NHM. Some claim that Joseph Smith might have learned of NHM from existing 19th century sources.[97] Some suggest that either the vowels or consonants between the word Nahom and various derivatives of the root NHM do not represent an accurate correlation.[98]

Bountiful

LDS scholars believe they have located several plausible locations for the land Bountiful, as well as the place Bountiful where the Book of Mormon says Lehi camped and the harbour where it says Nephi built his ship for the purpose of crossing the ocean to come to the Americas. The location of Salalah was proposed by Hugh Nibley and is supported by Lynn and Hope Hilton.[99] The location at Khor Rori is supported by Potter and Wellington of the Nephi Project.[100] The location of Wadi Sayq (west of Salalah near the border of Yemen) and it's associated harbor Khor Kharfot is supported by Warren Aston.[101]

New World setting

Map showing the possible lands and sites of the Book of Mormon in Mesoamerica (speculative)

The New World setting for the Book of Mormon narrative has been placed everywhere from South and Central America to the Finger Lakes region in New York (possibly referring to the Mound Builders), which some equate to the fortifications described in the Book of Mormon.

Hemispheric Geography Model

LDS scripture indicates that early church members did not exhibit great attention to Book of Mormon detail (Doctrine and Covenants 84:54-57). An exaggerated, two-continent geography for the Book of Mormon satisfied the minds of many Latter-day Saints. The hemispheric model is readily arrived at by cursorily reading the Book of Mormon in view of maps of the Western Hemisphere. It is not at all definite that Joseph Smith held this view. From first hand statements we find Joseph Smith relating the history of the Book of Mormon to “the aboriginal inhabitants of this country…” (North America) The peoples that survived the fall of the Nephite nation are according to Smith “the Indians that now inhabit this country.” Smith said that he was divinely “…informed concerning the aboriginal inhabitants of this country, and shown who they were, and from whence they came; a brief sketch of their origin, progress, civilization, laws, government, of their righteousness and iniquity, and the blessings of God being finally withdrawn from them as a people was made known to me.” [102] Joseph Smith at the very least, taught that certain lands of the Book of Mormon were in his country.[103] Beyond this, Joseph Smith was willing to allow others to use their imaginations and to form divergent opinions. He commonly allowed the saints to express themselves verbally and in print, occasionally shepherding, or overriding their conjectures with authoritative pronouncements (i.e. Doctrine and Covenants 128:20). Along with the assumption that the New World Book of Mormon’s setting encompasses all of the Americas, has been the tradition that the Lamanites are the "principal ancestors of the American Indians." The original text of the Book of Mormon makes no such generalization[104] The Book of Mormon speaks of a narrow neck of land, and many readers, with the entire Western Hemisphere in mind, have presumed that the Isthmus of Panama, or even all of Central America fits this requirement.[105]

Limited Geography Model

The Limited Geography Model, formally proposed by LDS scholars in 1984, states that the text of the Book of Mormon narrative itself supports a limited region only hundreds of miles in dimension and that other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.[106] One book compiled by prominent Mormon scholar John Sorenson has more than 400 pages of possible location theories placing Book of Mormon events everywhere from the Finger Lakes region of the Northeast United States to Chile.[107] The fact remains that aside from the Finger Lakes location of Cumorah (disregarded by some) there are no landmarks defined in LDS scripture, that will unambiguously identify New World Book of Mormon places.

After constructing an internal geographical model for the Book of Mormon and then comparing it to other proposed geographical regions, some LDS scholars assert that there is only a single plausible match with the geography in Mesoamerica centered around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. This area includes the area of current day Guatemala, the southern Mexico States of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and the surrounding area.[108]This region was first proposed as the location of Zarahemla (ruins of Quirigua) in the anonymous newspaper article of October 1, 1842 (Times and Seasons).

With Zarahemla posited in Guatemala, the pick of isthmuses to label as the “small neck” becomes rather limited. The lateral Isthmus of Tehuantepec is as wide as Florida, and its northern and southern seas are a problematic fit for “the sea, on the west and on the east” of the “narrow pass” (Alma 50:34). Oddly enough, the only Isthmus mentioned in the Times and Seasons “ZARAHEMNLA” article is the Isthmus of Darien. It is possible that the unknown writer(s) in citing Alma 20:32 (pages 280-81 in the Book of Mormon 3rd edition) confused “the narrow strip of wilderness” south of Zarahemla (verse 27), with “the small neck of land” north of Zarahemla (verse 32) and therefore supposed that the Isthmus of Darien could qualify as “the small neck”. The article also blunders in attributing the description of a “large stone …with engravings on it” to Mosiah, when in fact it was Amaleki son of Abinadom who described the stone (Omni 1:20). There is nothing in the 1842 article leading readers to suppose that Cumorah was somewhere in southern Mexico.

The Limited Mesoamerican Geography Model has been critiqued by a number of scholars, who suggest that it is not an adequate explanation for Book of Mormon geography and that the locations, events, flora and fauna described in it do not precisely match.[109][110] In response to one of these critiques in 1994, Sorenson reaffirmed his proposal for a limited Mesoamerican geographical setting.[111]

A limited geographical setting for the Book of Mormon has been suggested by many church leaders, including Joseph Smith, Orson Pratt, Parley P. Pratt, and B. H. Roberts.[112]

Scholar and author Venice Priddis speculated that the geographical setting of the Book of Mormon could be in South America.[113]Author Phyllis Carol Olive cogently defends a limited geography setting based on scriptural Cumorah of the Finger Lakes[114]

Alternative settings

Some Latter Day Saint scholars have suggested that it is possible that the events recorded in the Book of Mormon took place somewhere other than the Western Hemisphere. For example, one scholar has suggested that many Book of Mormon events could plausibly be placed in the Malay Peninsula.[115] This author has acknowledged that consideration of his "Malay hypothesis" by LDS scholars would require Book of Mormon archaeology to "undergo a radical paradigm shift—one that many would consider quite far-fetched."[115]

Efforts to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with New World cultures

LDS scholars have used the Mesoamerican geographical model to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with known cultures in the region. While such comparisons are performed in order to determine the plausibility of these correlations, it should be noted that neither the text of the Book of Mormon nor the scholars who support it make any definitive claim that the Book of Mormon describes the Olmec or Mayan civilizations.

The Jaredites and the Olmec

Many LDS scholars[who?] believe that the Olmec civilization matches the appropriate time and place to be identified with the Jaredite civilization in The Book of Mormon[citation needed][original research?]. The book of Mormon places the Jaredite civilization in the new world at the time of the Tower of Babel (estimated to be between 3100 BC and 2200 BC). The specific date of arrival in the New World is not identified. The Jaredite civilization in the American covenant land, is said to have been completely destroyed as the result of a civil war at the approximate time that Lehi's party is said to have arrived in the New World (approximately 590 B.C.). Jaredite civilization concentrated in “the land northward” according to the Book of Mormon. The land south of “the narrow neck” was preserved by the Jaredites as “a wilderness to get game”[116]. Olmec civilization spread to both sides of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec[117].

The Olmec civilization flourished in Mesoamerica during the Preclassic period, dating from 1200 BC to about 400 BC. The Olmec civilization suddenly disintegrated for unknown reasons, although archaeological evidence clearly indicates a definite Olmec influence within the Maya civilization that followed[citation needed]. Although the Olmec civilization ended, there are indications that some of the Olmec people survived and interacted with other cultures.[118]

The Lamanites and The Maya

The Maya civilization has been suggested as the Lamanite culture depicted in the Book of Mormon[citation needed]. There is substantial debate about whether the material and linguistic culture of these civilizations corresponds to the descriptions in the Book of Mormon[citation needed].

Establishing connections between ruins of the Mayan civilization (for example, Quirigua, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal in Guatemala, and Copán in Honduras, and Palenque in Mexico) and the cities and civilizations mentioned in the Book of Mormon has been difficult for LDS scholars on a number of fronts. Perhaps the most significant issue is the dating. By Old-World standards, the Mayan ruins are relatively recent; conventional archaeology places the pinnacle of Mayan civilization several centuries after the final events in the Book of Mormon supposedly occurred. LDS scholars[who?] suggest that the Book of Mormon record follows the Nephite civilization until its destruction, but the Lamanite civilization remained[citation needed] (possibly the Maya[original research?]). This would explain the more modern ruins that are from a much later time period[original research?].

The standard construction practice employed by the Maya was to build new structures on top of older structures. Many older structures are either contained within or their rubble is buried under the structures which were built later.[119]

The Nephites

No civilization has been identified as correlating with the Nephite culture, and it is postulated by some LDS scholars[who?] that the Nephite culture was probably characterized by unpretentious Christian discipleship inconsistent with impressive monuments and stone artisanship[citation needed]. As such, LDS scholars[who?] have postulated several views, one view holds that a Nephite culture may have existed within the greater Lamanite (usually Maya) culture[original research?]. The Book of Mormon, however, makes no mention of Lamanites erecting impressive works of hewn stone as did the Maya. Another view holds that the events surrounding most of the Book of Mormon may have occurred in the Great Lakes region in ancient times[120]. The Golden Plates were reported to have been found near this general area.

The Book of Mormon mentions that Nephite infrastructure included “high ways”[121]. Bradley T Lepper argues that the ancient peoples of Ohio constructed the Great Hopewell Road which is estimated to have been 90 kilometers long and 40 meters wide, and is believed to have connected present day Newark and Chillicothe, Ohio, in a straight line[122]. Works of earth and timber are mentioned repeatedly in the Book of Mormon[123]. In their heyday the earth and timber works of certain mound builder societies were very impressive. Some of these constructions are known to be older than the stone works of the Maya, Aztecs and Incas[124].

According to the Book of Mormon, an altered form of the Hebrew language existed among the Nephites[125]. This does not mean that all the names or language used in the Book of Mormon to describe for instance, Messiah (Meshiach, Anointed One) derive from Hebrew.[126] Hebraic fragments and roots seem discernable in Nephite / Mulekite names like "Zarahemla".[127] The Book of Mormon name “Mosiah” is similar to the Hebrew word “moshia” (מוֹשִׁיעַ) meaning “savior” [128], Masoretic Text, Hebrew-Aramaic Lexicon).[129] Numerous seemingly Semitic Book of Mormon names have been pointed out.[130] Book of Mormon names such as “Jacob”, “Jerusalem”, “Boaz”, “Gilgal”, to name only a few, are definitely Hebraic, being also found in the Hebrew Bible. The Semitic etymologies of these Book of Mormon names can be referenced in any reliable Hebrew-Aramaic Lexicon.

Nephite civilization was severely damaged at the time of Christ, with many major cities being completely destroyed. There is a 300 year period in the Book of Mormon after Christ’s arrival for which few details about Nephite civilization are recorded. The Book of Mormon indicates that damaged cities were rebuilt[131]. Distant migrations may have also occurred[132].

LDS scripture indicates that Nephite civilization situated near the Great Lakes / Finger Lakes region[133]. LDS authors John L. Sorenson and David A. Palmer, on the other hand, propose a Mesoamerican setting for the Book of Mormon[134]. According to 3 Nephi 8:5-19, Book of Mormon lands were subjected to three days of profound darkness, preceded by a period of electrical storms and earth quakes. The account of this destruction and particularly the palpable darkness (3 Nephi 8:20) has led these LDS theorists to conjecture that a volcanic eruption was involved. The colossal Alaskan Mount Churchill eruption of 60 A.D. (+/- 200 years) may have had some long range effect on the Great Lakes region, but this has not been proven. It is known that volcanic tephra including ash, can travel thousands of miles from an eruption. LDS theorists Sorenson and Palmer, however conclude that Book of Mormon lands must reside in a volcanic zone [135]. There is, however, no explicit mention of a volcano or volcanism in the Nephite record. Plural “whirlwinds” (tornados), “lightnings”, “fire” and “smoke” are explicitly described[136].

According to Joseph Smith the golden plates, the interpreters and breast plate were sealed in a cemented stone box near Lake Ontario and the Finger Lakes (Joseph Smith History 1:52). Limited Mesoamerican and South American geography theorist must, out of necessity, argue that these artifacts were carried to the Finger Lakes region by a Mesoamerican or else South American Moroni, who journeyed thousands of miles, trying to escape from seemingly ever present Lamanites. It is evident from the Book of Mormon, however, that Moroni was still hiding from the Lamanites (Book of Mormon peoples) and robbers in Book of Mormon lands many years after the destruction of the Nephites (Mormon 8:1-9). He was still in Book of Mormon “north country” when he began his abridgement of the record of Ether. This is evident from his introductory remarks to the abridged Book of Ether, which mention “…the ancient inhabitants [Jaredites] who were destroyed…upon the face of this north country” (Ether 1:1-2). Before completing the abridgement in his own language, Moroni sealed up the interpreters (Ether 4:4-5, Ether 5:1), and was still in Lamanite held territory (not thousands of miles away) after completing the Ether abridgement (Moroni 1:1-4). He specifically mentions his intent to seal up the plates (the interpreters had already been sealed up) after concluding some remarks to the Lamanites (his brethren, Moroni 10:1-2).

Nephite scripture informs us that “the Lord God, will give unto him [Joseph Smith] power, that he may whisper concerning them [the righteous dead of the Book of Mormon] , even as it were out of the ground; and their speech shall whisper out of the dust.” The process of translating the words of the Book of Mormon (in the vicinity of the Finger Lakes) was therefore likened to the voice of the dead speaking out of the ground (2 Nephi 26:14-16). Mormon 8:23-26 indicates that the voice from the dust, concomitant with the coming forth of the Book of Mormon, would figuratively proceed from the ground of the book’s ancient dead, that is, from the land which the saints of the Book of Mormon possessed in life, and not from ground thousands of miles away (i.e. Central America).

Systems of measuring time (calendars)

All of the dates given in the Book of Mormon are stated in terms of the Nephite calendar. The system of dates used by the Lamanites is not stated. The highest numbered month mentioned is the eleventh, and the highest numbered day is the twelfth, but the total number of months in a year and the number of days in a month is not specified.[137]

Most North American tribes relied upon a calendar of 13 months, since there are 13 distinct cycles of the moon each year. Seasonal Rounds and ceremonies were performed each moon. Months were counted in the days between phase cycles of the moon itself. Calendar Systems in use in North America during this historical period relied on this simple system.[138]

One of the more distinctive features shared among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations is the use of an extensive system of inter-related calendars. The epigraphic and archaeological record for this practice dates back at least 2,500 years, by which time it appears to have been well-established.[139] The most widespread and significant of these calendars was the 260-day calendar, formed by combining 20 named days with 13 numerals in successive sequence (13 × 20 = 260).[140] Another system of perhaps equal antiquity is the 365-day calendar, approximating the solar year, formed from 18 'months' × 20 named days + 5 additional days. These systems and others are found in societies of that era such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Mixe-Zoque, Mixtec and Maya (whose system of Maya calendars are widely regarded as the most intricate and complex among them) reflected the vigesimal (base 20) numeral system and other numbers, such as 13 and 9.

Although the number 7 is a co-factor in some Mesoamerican calendars (such as the Mayan 819-day calendar, formed from 13 × 9 × 7 days), none of the known calendar systems used a 7-day count as an exclusive or prominent base[citation needed].

Many North American Cultures considered the numbers 7 and 13 to be particularly sacred. 13 was associated with the earth itself because it represented the cycles of the moon each year, and the number 7 was the lunar cycle midpoint between the seasons of summer and winter[citation needed]. North American Tribes experienced yearly fluctations in the availability of various food sources throughout the year, and the number 7 corresponded in MesoAmerican and North American Cultures with the ripening of Maize crops, since the cultivars of Zea Mays (corn) grown by these cultures matured in the 7th lunar cycle of each seasonal round (year).

Warfare

LDS scholar Hugh Nibley stated that approximately one-third of the content of the Book of Mormon deals with matters related to warfare[141] LDS researchers also suggest that the Book of Mormon's account of large-scale warfare has been confirmed by findings in ancient Mesoamerica.[142]

Military fortifications

There are ten instances in the Book of Mormon in which cities are described as having defensive fortifications. For example, Alma 52:2 describes how the Lamanites "sought protection in their fortifications" in the city of Mulek[143].

One archaeologist has noted the existence of ancient Mesoamerican defensive fortifications.[144] According to one article in the Ensign, military fortifying berms are found in the Yucatan Peninsula,[145][146] in the region appropriate to where LDS scholars[who?] suggest that the wars described in the Book of Mormon could plausibly have occurred.

Efforts to correlate ruins and artifacts

Ruins

The Maya ruin known as Lamanai located in present-day Belize has attracted some attention from LDS proponents[who?], who note the similarity of its name with Lamanite (or the Hebrew language equivalent[original research?]). The origin of this placename is known to Mayanist scholarship[who?] as the name used by the local Maya peoples, transcribed in 16th-century Spanish documents[original research?][citation needed]. The name is confirmed by the decipherments of Classical era (ca. 250–900 A.D.) inscriptions at the site, where it appears as lam'an'ain, a Classic Maya expression meaning "(place of) submerged crocodile(s)".[147]

Artifacts

Izapa Stela 5

In the early 1950s, M. Wells Jakeman of the BYU Department of Archaeology suggested that a complicated scene carved on Stela 5 in Izapa was a depiction of a Book of Mormon event called Lehi's dream, which features a vision of the tree of life.[148] This interpretation is disputed by other Mormon and non-Mormon scholars.[149]

La Venta Stela 3

LDS researcher John Sorenson claims that carved monuments exist that depict people with Semitic features. One such artifact is La Venta Stela 3, which depicts two people facing each other. One of the two people depicted has a "striking beard and beaked nose," which has caused some researchers to refer to him as "Uncle Sam."[150]

Copan Stela B

LDS researchers have claimed that Copan Stela B depicts elephants; others claim it depicts macaws.[151][152]

Flora and fauna

Animals

Horses

Horses are mentioned fourteen times in the Book of Mormon. Three of these references are contained within prophetic statements (such as those of Isaiah) which do not directly describe events related to Book of Mormon people. There are four instances in which horses and chariots are mentioned in the same verse.[153] No specific mention is made of what the horses were used for, or if they were used with the chariots in some manner. It has been speculated by some LDS scholars that horses may have been used for food.[154] The use of horses for food is also implied from the context of 3 Nephi 4:4, which lists horses along with other food animals[original research?]:"[t]he Nephites...having reserved for themselves provisions, and horses and cattle, and flocks of every kind, that they might subsist for the space of seven years." This conclusion has been called into question[citation needed][original research?] based on a reference to the preceding chapter, 3 Nephi 3:22, where it groups horses and chariots together:"and they had taken their horses, and their chariots, and their cattle, and all their flocks, and their herds, and their grain, and all their substance."

Despite depictions by LDS artists and assumptions by some authors, horses are never mentioned as being ridden or used in battle. Words such as “ride,” “saddle,” and “horseman” (and their variants) do not appear in the Book of Mormon, leaving some people[who?] to speculate that these animals are something other than what we call “horses” today[original research?] (see Horses in the Book of Mormon). However, in the King James version of the Bible, saddle is only used with reference to an ass, and never with a horse[citation needed].

Horses evolved in the Americas (see Evolution of the horse), and evidence has been found showing that pre-historic horses were hunted by the Paleo-Indian Clovis culture who appeared in North America approximately 13,500 years ago.[155][156] These horses co-existed among the other Pleistocene megafauna, including the various species of mammoths, which are a genus of the elephant family, and the mastodon which is a more distant relative of the elephant. The pre-historic species of New World horses became extinct at the end of the last Ice Age, along with the mammoths and 70% of the large mammal species in North America (see New World Pleistocene Extinctions). The dates of regional extinctions vary between approximately 10,000[157] and 12,500[158] years ago. Horses were not re-introduced to Americas until they were brought to the Caribbean by Christopher Columbus on his second journey to the New World in 1493.[159] Horses were first brought by the Cortés expedition to the North American continent, to areas of present-day Mexico and New Mexico, in 1519.[160]

Elephants

Elephants are mentioned twice in a single verse in the Book of Ether.[161] The time period corresponding to this verse would be approximately 2500 B.C. Elephants, in particular, are mentioned as being "useful unto man." Elephants are never mentioned as having been present during the period of time during which the Nephite and Lamanite civilizations are said to have existed.

Scholars agree that mastadons and mammoths once lived in the New World. The main point of contention is how late these animals were present before becoming extinct.[162]

There are instances of stories preserved orally by Native Americans which some LDS scholars[who?] believe may describe elephants. One such story is related by the Naskapi Indian Tribe, located in Canada. The story concerns a monster from the Naskapi tradition called Katcheetohuskw, which is described as being very large, with large ears, teeth and a long nose.[163] Similar versions of "monster" legends related by other tribes refer to a monster called Ursida, which is described as more of a large, stiff-legged bear rather than a mammoth. The story of the "monster bear" is considered by some scholars to be purely mythical.[164]

Cattle

References to cattle are made seven times in the Book of Mormon, with two of these appearing within doctrinal or prophetic statements. Four instances refer to cattle being among the possessions of the Nephites, without stating the manner in which they were used. One instance found in the book of Ether states specifically that the Jaredites used cattle for food (Ether 9:18).

There has been no evidence recovered that Old World cattle (members of the genus Bos) ever inhabited the New World until European contact in the sixteenth century AD. However, in King James English, which is ostensibly the language the Book of Mormon was translated into, "cattle" meant "any domesticated quadruped"[165] or, in other words, "livestock".

Swine

Swine are referred to twice in the Book of Mormon. One of these instances in 3 Nephi 14:6 is in the context of a point of doctrine being taught and does not refer to the animal actually being present in the Nephite culture.[166] The Nephites were said to be living the Law of Moses,[167] and therefore would have been prohibited from eating swine.

The second instance in Ether 9:8 specifically mentions swine as being "useful for the food of man." Since the Jaredites are supposed to have left the Old World at the time of the Tower of Babel (prior to the time of Moses), they would not have been subject to the Law of Moses.[citation needed]

There have not been any remains, references, artwork, tools, or any other evidence suggesting that swine were ever present in the pre-entrada New World. However, ancient authors would not be familiar with modern classification and could easily have applied the category to a related New World animal (such as the peccary).

Cureloms and cumoms

The Book of Mormon mentions two unidentified animals in the Book of Ether. These animals are referred to as cureloms and cumoms and were identified as being "useful unto man," although the manner in which they were useful is not specified[168] One LDS scholar notes that the cureloms and cumons are considered more "useful unto man" than horses, which are mentioned in the same verse.[169]

Plants

Grains

Grains are mentioned twenty-eight times in the Book of Mormon. Corn is mentioned three times in the Book of Mormon as a crop that was planted and harvested by the Nephites. Barley is mentioned four times and wheat is mentioned once.[170]

The introduction of domesticated modern barley and wheat to the New World was made by Europeans sometime after 1492. LDS scholars believe that archaeological evidence discovered on the North American continent in Arizona, Illinois and Oklahoma shows that a variety of pre-Columbian barley existed and was cultivated in the New World.[171] No evidence of pre-Columbian barley has been discovered in Mesoamerica.

Other crops

Two unknown crops referred to as sheum and neas are mentioned once in Mosiah 9:9.[172] Although they are mentioned in the same context as corn, wheat and barley, it is not clear that they were grains. LDS scholars point out that "the ancient Assyrian term sheum was used at various times to refer to barley, grains generally, and even pine nuts."[173]

Technology

Wheeled vehicles

A wheeled figurine, probably from the Veracruz area during the Classic period. Height: 7 in (18 cm).

The Book of Mormon mentions the use of chariots as a mode of transportation five times.[174] The "chariots" mentioned in the Book of Mormon are not referred to as having been used in battle.

There is no archaeological evidence to support the use of wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica. Many parts of ancient Mesoamerica were not suitable for wheeled transport, although there is evidence that Mesoamericans had knowledge of the wheel, as shown by the discovery of wheeled toys left in tombs.[175]

One LDS researcher responds to the lack of evidence with a comparison to Biblical archaeology, suggesting that though there are no archaeological evidences that any of the numerous ancient American civilizations used wheeled transportation, few chariot fragments have been found in the Middle East dating to Biblical times[176] (apart from the disassembled chariots found in Tutankhamun's tomb. Although few fragments of chariots have been found in the Middle East, there are many images of ancient chariots on pottery and frescos and in many sculptures of Mediterranean origin, thus confirming their existence in those societies. The complete absence of these images among the hundreds of frescoes, hundreds of thousands of pieces of decorated pottery and pre-Columbian artwork found in the New World does not support the existence of Old World style chariots in the New World.

Some[who?] have suggested that the absence of wheeled modes of transportation in the Americas could be due to a lack of draft animals (horse, bulls, camels, etc) on the American continent during pre-Columbian times. LDS scholars note that the usage of the word chariot in the Book of Mormon does not necessitate their dependence upon the use of draft animals.[citation needed][original research?]

Referencing the discovery of wheeled chariot "toys" in Mayan funerary settings, Mormon scholar William J. Hamblin has suggested that the chariots mentioned in the Book of Mormon might refer to mythic or cultic wheeled vehicles.[177]

Recording records on metal plates

File:Lamine Pyrgi.jpg
the Pyrgi Tablets

In addition to the golden plates from which the Book of Mormon was translated, the narrative itself mentions other writings recorded on metal plates. Archaeologists have long suggested either that ancient cultures did not keep records on metal plates, or that it was not practical.[citation needed] The difficulty of creating records on metal plates is referenced in the Book of Mormon narrative itself, in which Jacob states: "[A]nd I cannot write but a little of my words, because of the difficulty of engraving our words upon plates."[178]

Recent discoveries have provided some evidence that this was an established method for recording information considered important.[179] As a point of comparison, the oldest known Biblical verses preserved in archaeology are three verses from the Book of Numbers, chapter 6, verses 24-26, that were on a pair of small silver amulets found by Israeli archaeologist Gabriel Barkay at Ketef Hinnom and dated to the 6th century BC, during the same time period the Book of Mormon events are purported to have taken place.[180] However, no records have been found on metal plates to date which approach the size of the record in the Book of Mormon and no such records have been found on the American continents.

Discussion of the metal plates and their use in recent years has involved the weight and type of metal that these plates would have been made of. For a discussion of such topics, see Golden Plates and Reformed Egyptian.

Metals

Steel

The Book of Mormon states that metals, including iron and steel (an iron alloy with carbon), were produced and used among the Book of Mormon peoples. It has been pointed out that there is no evidence of steel production in North, Central, or South America.

LDS scholars[who?] contend that the word steel could have been an approximate translation, actually referring to another type of metal entirely for which there would have been no word in 19th century America (see Tumbaga and similar copper and iron based metals)[original research?]. Steel is mentioned in four verses [181] in the Book of Mormon, all before 360 B.C. (by the book's chronology) and could have referred to an Old-World pyrometallurgy technology that was lost or forgotten in the Americas[original research?]. Iron and steel are mentioned together in the Bible.[182]

Iron

Studies in the availability of iron in ancient Americas are growing[citation needed]. In February 2008, multiple scientific journals ran stories that an 2000 year old iron ore mine was discovered near Nasca, Peru[citation needed]. The discovery, by a Purdue University archaeologist, demonstrates how civilizations before the Inca Empire mined and used iron. Kevin J. Vaughn, who led the research, said that "This discovery demonstrates that iron ores were important to ancient Andean civilizations." [183].

Other researchers[who?] note that iron may have been produced in prehistoric North America, covering sites in the East, and also provides a small amount of evidence that may indicate that Anasazi or Hohokam cultures in the Southwest performed iron smelting[citation needed][original research?].

Swords

Aztec warriors as shown in the 16th century Florentine Codex (from Vol. IX). Note that each warrior is brandishing a maquahuitl.

The Book of Mormon makes numerous references to swords and their use in battle. However, the only references to sword made of metal in this land were in the first generation[184] and when the remnants of the Jaredite's final battle were discovered, the Book of Mormon narrative states that "the blades thereof were cankered with rust."[185]

Warriors in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica are known to have used wooden clubs with blade-like obsidian flakes.[186], which being stone cannot rust.

Systems of exchange

The word coin does not appear in the "primary text" of any edition of the Book of Mormon. In 1981, a chapter heading with the words "Nephite coinage set forth" was added. The Book of Mormon describes a system of exchange based on measures of precious metals.

In the critical video Jesus Christ/Joseph Smith, a statement is made that Book of Mormon coins "were noted as being common in Joseph’s writings."[187]

The overall use of metal in ancient America seems to have been extremely limited. A more common exchange medium in Mesoamerica were cacao beans.[188]

Silk

The Book of Mormon mentions the use of silk six times, with two of these instances referring to things seen in a vision by Nephi. The term silk as used in the Old World context designates a material that is created from the cocoon of the Asian moth Bombyx mori. There are several materials which were used in Mesoamerica which the Spanish called "silk" upon their arrival.[189] The inhabitants of Mexico are known to have used the fiber spun by a wild silkworm to create a fabric.[190]

Legends

Creation of the world

Existing documents (such as the Popol Vuh documents of the Quiché people) provide some further historical insights into the creation accounts of Mesoamerican peoples (by three feathered serpents). Coe's description of the creation account in the Popol Vuh describes the creation of the K'iche' Maya by the forefather gods Tepew and Q'ukumatz. These gods are said to have "brought forth the earth from a watery void," after which they placed plants and animals upon it. The gods then created "man-like" creatures from mud, but these creatures did not endure. Wooden creatures later appeared but were destroyed by the Gods, and were replaced by men made of flesh. The account describes how these men of flesh "turned to wickedness and were annihilated as black rains fell and a great flood swept the earth." Sometime after this destruction, the true K'iche' Maya were created from maize dough, becoming the ancestors of the Maya that we know today.[191]

Some argue that these accounts fail to resemble the creation account version offered in the Bible[citation needed].

Another document of the Quiché, the Title of the Lords of Totonicapán, significantly resembles the Biblical story of creation. This document has obvious influence from Spanish Catholicism,[citation needed] but its differences to both the Popol Vuh and the Biblical story are intriguing. In the first day, God created the great light. On the second day, the nine levels of the sky received life. In the third day God created all the mountains and plains, the trees and the rocks. And so on. One interesting point is made when Lucifer, "combined with his sinful companions", rebel against God. God then sees necessary to cast them out of "the house of the sky". God then creates man from the materials of the earth. The man refers to God as "Mother and Father". The man is also sent two comforters. Following a detailed description of Cain and Abel, the Flood, and the Exodus, the Quiché state specifically that they are "descendants of the Israelites, of Moses. Of the tribes of Israel from where our grandparents and parents left. They came from where the sun leaves [from the West], there in Babyolonia where they celebrated rituals with the lord Nacxit; such was the origin of our lineage". The rest of the proceeding story is similar in many regards to the account of the Popol Vuh. In several instances, the Quiché regarding themselves specifically as Israelites.

Ancient American culture heroes

There are many legends of ancient "culture heroes" appearing in the New World. American historian and ethnologist Hubert Howe Bancroft lists some of these in his 1875 work The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America (Vol. 5): Quetzalcoatl in Cholula, Votan in Chiapas, Wixepecocha in Oajaca, Cukulcan in Yucatan, Gukumatz in Guatemala, Yiracocha in Peru, Sume and Paye-Tome in Brazil, and Bochica in Colombia.[192] According to Bancroft:

They are all described as white, bearded men, generally clad in long robes; appearing suddenly and mysteriously upon the scene of their labors, they at once set about improving the people by instructing them in useful and ornamental arts, giving them laws, exhorting them to practice brotherly love and other Christian virtues, and introducing a milder and better form of religion; having accomplished their mission, they disappear as mysteriously and unexpectedly as they came; and finally, they are apotheosized and held in great reverence by a grateful posterity.[193]

Quetzalcoatl

The ancient Mesoamerican legend of Quetzalcoatl, depicted in some versions as "the bearded white god", is interpreted by some Latter-day Saints as a depiction of the actual visit of Jesus to the Americas as related and foretold 600 years before his coming in the Book of Mormon.[citation needed] Other students of ancient Mesoamerica do not accept this claim for several reasons: Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent deity, is depicted in Mesoamerican art dated several centuries before Jesus. The King Quetzalcoatl who promised to return to Mexico dated almost 1,000 years after the life of Jesus.[194] LDS scholars[who?] point out that part of the reason Hernan Cortes so easily conquered the Aztecs was that he fit the pre-existent Aztec conception of Quetzalcoatl, and thus the Aztecs hesitated to resist.

Organizational statements regarding the Book of Mormon

Smithsonian Institution

The Smithsonian Institution issued an official statement in 1996 and again in 1998 that it considered the Book of Mormon to be "a religious document and not a scientific guide", and hence it had not used it in archaeological research.[195]

During the early 1980s, reports circulated in LDS culture that the Book of Mormon was being used by the Smithsonian to guide primary archaeological research. This rumor was brought to the attention of Smithsonian directors who, in 1996, sent a form letter to inquiring parties stating that the Smithsonian did not use the Book of Mormon to guide any research, and included a list of specific reasons Smithsonian archaeologists considered the Book of Mormon historically unlikely.[196] In 1998, the Smithsonian revised the form letter they sent in response to this issue to take a less controversial stance,[197] specifically replacing detailed allegations of the non-historicity of the Book of Mormon with a simple statement that the Book of Mormon has not been used by the Smithsonian in any form of archaeological research. Mormon scholars suggest this may have been because the 1996 letter contradicts some aspects of research published by Smithsonian staff members; Non-LDS scholars note that the Smithsonian has not retracted any of its previous statements, and feel that the response was toned down to avoid negative public relations with Mormons. Terryl Givens suggests that the change in the statement was "in all likelihood a product of controversy-avoidance."[198] Some Mormon scholars speculate that the statement may have been revised because some of the reasons listed are considered controversial or even dubious (for reasons unrelated to the Book of Mormon) by some mainstream historians.[197]

National Geographic Society

The National Geographic Society, in a 1998 letter to the Institute for Religious Research, stated "Archaeologists and other scholars have long probed the hemisphere's past and the society does not know of anything found so far that has substantiated the Book of Mormon."[199]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ This has been an implicit consensus among all major LDS scholars since the publication of the Book of Mormon. For a general statement involving the major theories and their history see a summary from BYU's website
  2. ^ Faust 1983
  3. ^ Faust 1983 Faust states, "It is important to know what the Book of Mormon is not. It is not primarily a history, although much of what it contains is historical ... George Q. Cannon stated that 'the Book of Mormon is not a geographical primer. It was not written to teach geographical truths. What is told us of the situation of the various lands or cities … is usually simply an incidental remark connected with the doctrinal or historical portions of the work.' (Juvenile Instructor, January 1890, p. 18.) What, then, is the Book of Mormon? It is confirming evidence of the birth, life, and crucifixion of Jesus and of his work as the Messiah and the Redeemer. Nephi writes about the Book of Mormon: 'All ye ends of the earth, hearken unto these words and believe in Christ; and if ye believe not in these words believe in Christ. And if ye shall believe in Christ ye will believe in these words, for they are the words of Christ.'" (2 Ne. 33:10.)
  4. ^ "Credibility of the Book of Mormon". Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  5. ^ "Smithsonian statement on Book of Mormon archaeology". Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  6. ^ "National Geographic Letter on the Book of Mormon". Retrieved 2007-11-28.
  7. ^ Berrett, William E (1938). A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. p. 53. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Nibley, Hugh W (1980). The Book of Mormon and the Ruins: The Main Issues. Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies.
  9. ^ Smith 1997, p. 262
  10. ^ Smith 1997, p. 263;Sjodahl, Janne M (1927). "An Introduction to the Study of the Book of Mormon". Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press.Sjodahl also suggested that the Jaredite population may not have been completely destroyed.
  11. ^ Smith 1997, p. 263;Berrett, William E (1938). A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. p. 48. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Smith 1997, p. 263; Nibley, Hugh W (1980). The Book of Mormon and the Ruins: The Main Issues. Provo, Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies.
  13. ^ Smith 1997, p. 264
  14. ^ Sorenson & September 1984
  15. ^ Sorenson 1985
  16. ^ ”ZARAHEMLA”, Times and Seasons, October 1, 1842, Volume 3, Number 23, p. 927.
  17. ^ ” STEPHEN’S [STEPHENS’] WORKS ON CENTRAL AMERICA”, Times and Seasons, October 1, 1843, Volume 4, Number 22, p. 346; See also Times and Seasons, April 1, 1845, Volume 6, Number 6, pg 855
  18. ^ See 2 Nephi 5:15-16, Alma 48:8, Helaman 3:9
  19. ^ Gardner, Brant. "Too Good to be True: Questionable Archaeology and the Book of Mormon" (PDF). The Foundation for Apologetic Information and Research. Retrieved 2007-01-09. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  20. ^ Givens 2002, p. 146
  21. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 128:19
  22. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 128:20
  23. ^ Smith 1997, p. 259-260
  24. ^ New World Archaeological Foundation, online collections at BYU.
  25. ^ Citing the lack of specific New World geographic locations to search, Michael D. Coe, a prominent Mesoamerican archaeologist and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Yale University, writes (in a 1973 volume of Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought): "As far as I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing [the historicity of The Book of Mormon], and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon archaeologists who join this group".
  26. ^ Coe, Michael D (Summer 1973). "Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought: 41–46. Michael Coe notes, "There can be no question that the BYU sponsored New World Archaeological Foundation's program has been an unqualified success. Its twenty years of excavations and exploration in Chiapas have put that state on the archaeological map and have established one of the longest and best archaeological sequences for any part of the New World. Credit for this goes to the foresight of [Thomas Stewart] Ferguson and the original directors, but especially to the first-class [LDS] archaeologists who have carried out the program. First and foremost among them, I would name Gareth W. Lowe, who has been field director for a number of years and who has established himself as the outstanding expert in the field of Formative Mesoamerica. And full praise must be given to the generosity and wisdom of the [LDS] Church leadership in providing financial backing for the foundation. 'Mormon archaeology' is no longer something that brings chuckles in Gentile circles."
  27. ^ See the Introduction to the Book of Mormon
  28. ^ President Anthony W. Ivins, Conference Report, April 1929, p. 15.
  29. ^ One of the more vocal challengers to the Semitic origins of New World populations is Dr. Thomas W. Murphy.
  30. ^ Southerton 2004
  31. ^ Geneticists have noted the difficulties in using genetics in this area for a variety of reasons. Some of these are our lack of knowledge concerning Sariah's descent (or others' in Lehi's party), have access to DNA from this period (600 BC Israel), or know what other groups would have intermarried with these groups (or in what numbers). For more information see Whiting, Michael F (2003). "DNA and the Book of Mormon: A Phylogenetic Perspective". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 12 (1). Maxwell Institute: 24–35. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
  32. ^ Not having the ancient Israelite gene for comparison and the inability for DNA testing to link some Jewish groups that are known to be related, see Butler, John M (2006). "Addressing Questions surrounding the Book of Mormon and DNA Research". FARMS Review. 18 (1). Maxwell Institute: 101–108. Retrieved 2007-01-19..
  33. ^ 1998 "Trinity Journal," an article entitled "Mormon Scholarship, Apologetics, and Evangelical Neglect: Losing the Battle and Not Knowing It?"
  34. ^ LDS.org - Ensign Article - A Testimony Vibrant and True
  35. ^ Sorenson 1992, pp. 1–34
  36. ^ See for example Jarom 1:8 discussing advanced machinery, Mosiah 8:5 and Mosiah 25:5 discussing semi-literateness of the Nephites] and Helaman 3:8 and 16 that discusses the heavy population of the Lehite peoples. Similar references may be found about the Jaredites, for which the reader is referred to the Book of Ether [1]
  37. ^ Krakauer, Jon (2003). Under the Banner of Heaven. Doubleday. p. 68. ISBN 0-385-50951-0.
  38. ^ Sorenson 1992, pp. 1–34
  39. ^ Smith 1997, p. 280
  40. ^ Givens 2002, p. 139
  41. ^ Ether 15:2
  42. ^ E.g. 1 Nephi 13:23 et. seq.
  43. ^ E.g. Ether 7:9, 10:23
  44. ^ E.g. Alma 18:9-12
  45. ^ Southerton 2004, p. 156
  46. ^ Coe, Michael D (Summer 1973). "Mormons and Archaeology: An Outside View". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought.
  47. ^ Sorenson 1985, pp. 96–137
  48. ^ Tanner & Tanner 1969
  49. ^ Coe 2002, p. 50-52
  50. ^ entry on "American Indians", Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VII (orig. pub. 1910); on-line at New Advent
  51. ^ Archaeology “proves” Bible not Book of Mormon, Michael R. Ash
  52. ^ Times and Seasons,Jan 1, 1846, Volume 6, Number 20, pg 1076
  53. ^ Laughton, Timothy (1998). The Maya. London: Duncan Baird Publishers. pp. p. 26. ISBN 1-84483-016-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)"In the late 1560s the Spanish bishop of Yucatan, Fray Diego de Landa, wrote of the Maya: 'These people also made use of certain characters or letters, with which they wrote in their books of ancient matters and sciences. We found a large number of books written in these characters and, as they contained nothing in which there was not superstition and lies of the devil, we burned them all...'"
  54. ^ Coe 2002, p. 199-200
  55. ^ Kettunen, Harri and Helmke, Christophe (2005). Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs (pdf). Wayeb and Leiden University. pp. p.6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^ Ibid.
  57. ^ Coe 2002, p. 62
  58. ^ Hougey, Hal (1983). Archaeology and The Book of Mormon. Concord, CA: Pacific Publishing.
  59. ^ Hemingway, Donald (2000). Ancient America Rediscovered as recorded by Mariano Veytia (1720-1778). Bonneville Books. ISBN 1-55517-479-5.Among some of the myths recorded by Veytia are that seven families traveled across the ocean to northern American near the time of the confusion of tongues, and thereafter migrated to Central America (pp. 40, 49-50, 192), the belief that there was a great flood (p. 44), an account of a solar eclipse coincident with a tremendous earthquake which resulted in no human fatalities (p. 148), the arrival of Quetzalcoatl in the company of other bearded men as many as thirty years after the earthquake and eclipse (pp. 152, 154, 164), and the presence of giants in New Spain (pp. 140-141).
  60. ^ ”Traits of the Mosaic History Found Among the Aztaeca Nations”, Joseph Smith, Editor, Times and Seasons, June 15, 1842, Volume 3, Number 16, pp 818-820.
  61. ^ Letter to John Bernhisel, 16 November 1841, Personal Writing of Joseph Smith, compiled and edited by Dean C. Jessee, p. 533
  62. ^ 1 Nephi 13:30
  63. ^ “AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES”, Joseph Smith, Editor, Times and Seasons, July 15, 1842, Vol. 3, No 18, pg 858.
  64. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 127:1
  65. ^ In response to a letter to President Gordon B. Hinckley from a member of the Moore Ward, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma South Stake, a letter on official First Presidency letterhead was issued, October 16, 1990, to the Bishop of the Moore Ward. The letter from the Office of the First Presidency of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, responded to an inquiry “about the location of the Hill Cumorah mentioned in the Book of Mormon, where the last battle between the Nephites and the Lamanites took place.” The official response included this statement:
    “The Church has long maintained, as attested to by references in the writings of General Authorities, that the Hill Cumorah in western New York state is the same as referenced in the Book of Mormon.
    “The Brethren appreciate your assistance in responding to this inquiry…”
    The letter was signed by the Secretary to the First Presidency
  66. ^ Hill 1995, p. 33"Sir, Considering the Liberal Principles," Joseph Smith to N.C. Saxton, editor, American Revivalist, and Rochester Observer, 4 January 1833 (from Times and Seasons [Nauvoo, Illinois] 5 [15 November 1844], 21:705-707)
  67. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 28:8-9
  68. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 19:27, Doctrine and Covenants 57:4, 2 Nephi 30:4
  69. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 10:45-52, 1 Nephi 14:1-2
  70. ^ 3 Nephi 20:22, 3 Nephi 21:22-23, Ether 13:2-8
  71. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 57:1-4, Doctrine and Covenants 84:2-3
  72. ^ Jessee 1984, p. 324(See also Zelph)
  73. ^ "Did the Prophet Joseph Smith in 1842 Locate Book of Mormon Lands in Middle America?", by V. Garth Norman
  74. ^ Oliver Cowdery, "Letter Seven," Messenger and Advocate, July 1835
  75. ^ The Revised and Enhanced History of Joseph Smith By His Mother, Edited by Scot Facer Proctor and Maurine Jensen Proctor, Bookcraft, 1996, p. 107 n. 14; See also History of Joseph Smith by His Mother Lucy Mack Smith, p. 100
  76. ^ History of Joseph Smith by His Mother Lucy Mack Smith, pg 83
  77. ^ U.A.S. Newsletter (Provo, Utah: University Archaeological Society at Brigham Young University) January 30, 1963, p. 7.
  78. ^ Orson Pratt, Journal of Discourses (London, England: Albert Carrington, 1869), vol. 12; p. 342; Volume 14, p. 325, 1872
  79. ^ Frederick J. Pack (Chairman of the Gospel Doctrine Committee of the Church), The Instructor, 1918 issue, pg 386.
  80. ^ See, for example, the documentary Journey of Faith produced by the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies; see also S. Kent Brown, "New Light from Arabia on Lehi's Trail," in Evidences and Echoes of the Book of Mormon, ed. Donald W. Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and John W. Welch [Provo, Utah: FARMS, 2002], 55–125, especially 81–85, 88–90
  81. ^ Nephi Project Research Discoveries
  82. ^ See Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass, Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1997), 55, item no. 15.
  83. ^ Chadwick, Jeffrey R. (2003). "Has the Seal of Mulek Been Found?". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 12 (2). Maxwell Institute: pp. 72-83. Retrieved 2007-4-07. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  84. ^ Southerton 2004, p. 5 "The clarity with which this journey is described has led Mormons, scholars included, to believe that the group traveled south across the Arabian Peninsula to modern-day Yemen or Oman."
  85. ^ Nephi Project Research Discoveries
  86. ^ There is textual evidence in the Doctrine and Covenants and Book of Mormon that Nephi was involved in missionary work during his travels from Jerusalem to the New World. For example, Doctrine and Covenants 33:8 states "Open your mouths and they shall be filled, and you shall become even as Nephi of old who journeyed from Jerusalem in the wilderness."
  87. ^ Brown, S. Kent (1997). "A Case for Lehi's Bondage in Arabia". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 6 (2). Maxwell Institute: pp. 205-217. Retrieved 2007-01-11. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  88. ^ Berrett 1999
  89. ^ Hilton & Hilton 1996, p. 47
  90. ^ Hilton & Hilton 1996, p. 75
  91. ^ Aston, Warren (1997). "Review of "Discovering Lehi: New Evidence of Lehi and Nephi in Arabia"". Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  92. ^ Potter, George (1999). "A New Candidate in Arabia for the "Valley of Lemuel"". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 8 (1). Maxwell Institute: pp. 54-63. Retrieved 2007-01-09. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help) This claim was made by George Potter and Craig Thorsted of the Nephi Project on 11 May 1995.Nephi Project
  93. ^ Chadwick, Jeffery R (2005). "The Wrong Place for Lehi's Trail and the Valley of Lemuel". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 17 (2). Maxwell Institute: 197–215. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
  94. ^ Ancient Hebrew Research Center
  95. ^ Jeff Lindsay
  96. ^ Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies
  97. ^ Brown, S.K. "On Nahom/NHM". Retrieved 2006-12-21.
  98. ^ Tanner, Jerald (1996). Answering Mormon Scholars: A Response to Criticism Raised by Mormon Defenders. Utah Lighthouse Ministry. pp. p. 183. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |Location= ignored (|location= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  99. ^ Hilton & Hilton 1996
  100. ^ Book of Mormon Explorers Claim Discoveries, Nephi Project
  101. ^ Aston, Warren P. and Michaela Knoth (1994). In the Footsteps of Lehi: New Evidence for Lehi's Journey across Arabia to Bountiful. Deseret Book Company. ISBN 0-87579-847-0.
  102. ^ CHURCH HISTORY in the March 1, 1842 issue of the Times and Seasons
  103. ^ Millennial Star “History of Joseph Smith,” May 13, 1854, Volume 16, p. 296. See also the September 25, 1838, journal entry of Samuel D. Tyler. Note that if the original Book of Mormon land of Manti was located in northern America (as several church members interpreted Joseph Smith as saying), the original land of Zarahemla (north of Manti) could not be located in Central or South America
  104. ^ Southerton 2004, p. 42 "For many Mormons, this is as deep as their awareness of the origin of Native Americans extends. They remain oblivious to the large volume of research that has revealed continuous, widespread human occupation of the Americas for the last 14,000 years. Such research conflicts with erroneous LDS interpretations and oral traditions and unfortunately has, until recently, been ignored."
  105. ^ Southerton 2004, p. 155. Published while Joseph Smith was in hiding, the anonymous, front page, Incidents of Travel in Central America “EXTRACT” article (Times and Seasons, September 15, 1842, Volume 3, Number 22, pp 911-915) seems to allege that all of Central America is the “narrow neck of land”. In the same issue another exuberant though anonymous article alleges that Lehi landed “a little south of the Isthmus of Darien” (Panama), making a Guatemalan Zarahmela quite impossible! This article incidentally, mentions Joseph Smith in the third person, indicating that Smith did not write the article. Unfortunately a portion of the article has been included in Teaching of the Prophet Joseph Smith, compiled with the assistance of Church’s Historian’s Office.
  106. ^ Sorenson 1985, pp. 1–48
  107. ^ Sorenson, John L., compiler. The Geography of Book of Mormon Events: A Source Book Provo: FARMS, 1992. ASIN: B0006QHZWE. The book is a compilation of hundreds of proposed locations, some problematic without major climate changes, others have many convincing elements.
  108. ^ Sorenson 1985, pp. 35–36
  109. ^ Wunderli, Earl M (Fall 2002). "Critique of a Limited Geography for Book of Mormon Events". Dialog: A Journal of Mormon Thought. 35 (3): 161–197. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
  110. ^ Matheny, Deanne G (1994). "Does the Shoe Fit? A Critique of the Limited Tehuantepec Geography". New Approaches to the Book of Mormon: Explorations in Critical Methodology. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  111. ^ Sorenson, John L (1994). "Viva Zapato! Hurray for the Shoe!". FARMS Review of Books. 6 (1). Maxwell Institute: 297–361. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
  112. ^ Roper, Matthew (2004). "Limited Geography and the Book of Mormon: Historical Antecedents and Early Interpretations". FARMS Review. 16 (2). Maxwell Institute: 225–76. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
  113. ^ Venice Priddis, The Book and the Map (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA: Bookcraft, Inc.) 1975, p. 9, 16, 17
  114. ^ Book of Mormon lands and geography in western New York
  115. ^ a b Ralph A. Olsen, "A Malay Site for Book of Mormon Events", Sunstone Magazine, March 2004, 30.
  116. ^ Ether 10:20-21
  117. ^ Charles C. Mann, 1491 New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus, pp. 236-38. The "Beyond the heartland" section of Wikipedia's Olmec article also contains information on the spread of Olmec culture
  118. ^ Coe 2002, p. 13 Coe states that "much of complex culture in Mesoamerica has an Olmec Origin" and states that an "active interchange of ideas" occurred.
  119. ^ "Because the Maya had a habit of putting new buildings directly on top of older structures, Preclassic remains are few and far between at sites like Homul and Tikal that were occupied during the Classic period." David F. Salisbury, "Pushing back Maya origins" taken from [2]
  120. ^ (Olive 2000)
  121. ^ See Helaman 7:10 and 3 Nephi 8:13
  122. ^ Lepper, Bradley T (1995). "Tracking Ohio's Great Hopewell Road". Archaeology. 48 (6): 52–56. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  123. ^ Alma 49:2-22
  124. ^ “Searching for the Great Hopewell Road” produced by Pangea Productions Ltd. in collaboration with Algonquin Archaeological Consultants, Inc
  125. ^ Mormon 9:33
  126. ^ Hugh Nibley, Since Cumorah, pp. 167-68, discusses the origin, interchangeability, and translated use of the terms “Messiah” and “Christ” as they appear in scripture. Dr. Nibley points out that the Arabic word al-masih, for instance, could be translated using the Hebrew term “Messiah” or the New Testament term “Christ” depending on the context and translator. See also “Meshiach” (מָשִׁיחַ), “anointed”, Hebrew-Aramaic Lexicon
  127. ^ Milton R Hunter and Thomas Stewart Ferguson, Ancient America and the Book of Mormon, pp. 151-52, offer a possible Hebraic derivation: “zara-hamullah”
  128. ^ Isaiah 19:20
  129. ^ The meaning and transliteration of Biblical Hebrew and Greek can be resourced using the LDS CD-ROM Resource Edition of The Scriptures
  130. ^ Since Cumorah, pp. 171, Nibley discusses non-biblical Hebrew names present in the Book of Mormon
  131. ^ 4 Nephi 1:7-9
  132. ^ 4 Nephi 1:23
  133. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 128:20, Mormon 6:4
  134. ^ (Sorenson 1985)
  135. ^ (Sorenson 1985, p. 321), David A. Palmer presumes the need for Book of Mormon lands to be located in a volcanic zone, In Search of Cumorah, p. 53
  136. ^ 3 Nephi 10:12-14, 2 Nephi 26:4-6, 1 Nephi 12:4-5
  137. ^ Sorenson, John L (1991). "Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace". Rediscovering the Book of Mormon. Deseret Book Company and FARMS: 250. ISBN 0-87579-387-8. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  138. ^ 13 Moons On the Turtles Back. A Native American Year of Moons, ISBN 0-698-11584-8, Putnam and Grossnet Group, 199
  139. ^ Marcus, Joyce (1991). "First Dates: The Maya calendar and writing system were not the only ones in Mesoamerica--or even the earliest". Natural History. April: pp. 22-25. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); line feed character in |title= at position 63 (help)
  140. ^ Coe 2002, p. 59
  141. ^ Nibley, Hugh (1988). Since Cumorah. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book and FARMS. p. 291.
  142. ^ Sorenson, John L (2000). "Last-Ditch Warfare in Ancient Mesoamerica Recalls the Book of Mormon". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 9 (2). Maxwell Institute: pp. 44-53. Retrieved 2007-01-12. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  143. ^ Alma 52:2
  144. ^ Coe 2002, p. 100"Bekan in the Chenes region just north of the Peten, which was completely surrounded by massive defensive earthworks some time between the second and fourth centuries B.C. These consist of a ditch and inner rampart, with a total height of 38 ft (11.6 m), and would have been formidable...if the rampart had been surmounted by a palisade."
  145. ^ Ensign September 1984, p. 28.
  146. ^ Becán: Aerial Photo 1
  147. ^ Simmons, Scott (2003). "The Lamanai Archaeological Project, Lamanai, Belize". Lamanai Archaeological Project (LAP). Retrieved 2006-05-11.
  148. ^ Jakeman, M. Wells (1953). "An Unusual Tree-of-Life Sculpture from Ancient Central America". University Archaeological Society Newsletter: 26–49.
  149. ^ Clark, John E (1999). "A New Artistic Rendering of Izapa Stela 5: A Step toward Improved Interpretation". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 8 (1). Maxwell Institute: 22–33. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
  150. ^ Sorenson, John (1990). "The Mulekites". BYU Studies. 30 (3): 12.
  151. ^ Smith 1925
  152. ^ Tozzer & Allen 2006, p. 343
  153. ^ Instances in which horses and chariots are mentioned: Alma 18: 9 "And they said unto him: Behold, he is feeding thy horses. Now the king had commanded his servants...that they should prepare his horses and chariots"; Alma 18: 12 "And it came to pass that when Ammon had made ready the horses and the chariots for the king and his servants..."; Alma 20: 6 "Now when Lamoni had heard this he caused that his servants should make ready his horses and his chariots." 3 Ne. 3: 22 "[A]nd they had taken their horses, and their chariots..."
  154. ^ Hamblin, William J. "Basic Methodological Problems with the Anti-Mormon Approach to the Geography and Archaeology of the Book of Mormon". Featured Papers. Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-16.
  155. ^ Kooyman, Brian (October 2001). "Identification of Horse Exploitation by Clovis Hunters Based on Protein Analysis". American Antiquity. 66: 686–691. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  156. ^ Mayell, Hillary (11 May 2001). "Remains Show Ancient Horses Were Hunted for Their Meat". National Geographic News.
  157. ^ Baker, Barry W. "Late Pleistocene Horse (Equus sp.) from the Wilson-Leonard Archaeological Site, Central Texas" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  158. ^ Guthrie, R. Dale. "Rapid body size decline in Alaskan Pleistocene horses before extinction". Nature. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
  159. ^ Kirkpatrick, Jay F. "Wild Horses as Native North American Wildlife". Retrieved 2006-12-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  160. ^ Singer, Ben. "A brief history of the horse in America; Horse phylogeny and evolution". Canadian Geographic Magazine. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
  161. ^ Ether 9:19 "And they also had horses, and asses, and there were elephants..."
  162. ^ Sorenson 1985, p. 297
  163. ^ Johnson, Ludwell H III (October 1952). "Men and Elephants in America". Scientific Monthly: 215–21.Johnson states that the stories claimed that the monster was "very large, had a big head, large ears and teeth, and a long nose with which he hit people."
  164. ^ Siebert, F. T. Jr (October–December 1937). "Mammoth or "Stiff-Legged Bear"". American Anthropologist. 39 (4): 721–25.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  165. ^ See Dictionary.com and Strong's Concordance
  166. ^ 3 Nephi 14:6 "[N]either cast ye your pearls before swine."
  167. ^ Alma 25:15-16 "Yea, and they did keep the law of Moses; for it was expedient that they should keep the law of Moses as yet, for it was not all fulfilled."
  168. ^ Ether 9:19 "[A]nd there were elephants and cureloms and cumoms; all of which were useful unto man, and more especially the elephants and cureloms and cumoms."
  169. ^ Hamblin, William J. "Basic Methodological Problems with the Anti-Mormon Approach to the Geography and Archaeology of the Book of Mormon". Featured Papers. Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-16. See footnote 112: "Horses are never said to have been ridden in the Book of Mormon. Chariots are mentioned in association with horses (only in one incident, Alma 18:9–12; 20:6). This may be another indication that the horse was uncommon, since in societies where horseback riding is known the use of chariots rapidly declines. Furthermore, cureloms and cumoms were thought to be more useful to man than horses (Ether 9:19), a clear indication of the relative unimportance of the horse in Book of Mormon societies. Indeed, horses may have been used primarily for food."
  170. ^ "Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon". Featured Papers. Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
  171. ^ "Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon". Featured Papers. Maxwell Institute.
  172. ^ Mosiah 9:9
  173. ^ "Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon". Featured Papers. Maxwell Institute.; Gelb, Ignace J., et al., eds., The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1992), vol. 17, part 2, pages 345–55.
  174. ^ Alma 18:9-10,12, Alma 20:6, 3 Nephi 3:22
  175. ^ Phillips, Charles (2005). Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization. London: Hermes House. p. 65. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  176. ^ Sorenson, p. 59
  177. ^ See [http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&id=68 Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas across the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography
  178. ^ Jacob 4:1
  179. ^ While the Book of Mormon would be the longest such record engraved on plates found to date, such engraving is a documented ancient method of preservation Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates
  180. ^ Adams, William J (1994). "Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 3 (1). Maxwell Institute: 204–06. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
  181. ^ 1 Nephi 16:18, 2 Nephi 5:15, Jarom 1:8, Ether 7:9
  182. ^ Jeremiah 15:12: "Can iron break steel from the north?"
  183. ^ Archaeologist 'Strikes Gold' With Finds Of Ancient Nasca Iron Ore Mine In Peru
  184. ^ 2 Nephi 5:14"And I, Nephi, did take the sword of Laban, and after the manner of it did make many swords"
  185. ^ Mosiah 8:11"And again, they have brought swords, the hilts thereof have perished, and the blades thereof were cankered with rust."
  186. ^ Roper, Matthew (1999). "Swords and "Cimeters" in the Book of Mormon". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 8 (1). Maxwell Institute: pp. 34-43. Retrieved 2007-01-11. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)"Spaniards who faced native Mesoamerican swords in battle were deeply impressed by their deadly cutting power and razorlike sharpness."
  187. ^ Jesus Christ/Joseph Smith Video, Tri-Grace Ministries, distributed 2007. See segment on "Archaeological Evidence." The specific writings of Joseph Smith in which coins are said to be discussed as being "common" are not identified in the video.
  188. ^ Coe 2002, p. 132 "[W]ell into Colonial times the beans served as a form of money in regional markets."
  189. ^ See Fairlds.org's article (right side middle). Sorenson 1985, p. 232 "The Spanish reported several kinds of “silk.” One kind of silk was spun from the hair of rabbit’s bellies, another may have come from a wild silkworm, and yet a third came from the pod of the ceiba tree. Spanish chronicles report that types of “silk” were spun and woven in Mesoamerica before their arrival."
  190. ^ Sorenson, John L. "A New Evaluation of the Smithsonian Institution "Statement regarding the Book of Mormon"" (HTTP). Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-17. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  191. ^ Coe 2002, p. 41
  192. ^ Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1875). The native races of the Pacific states of North America (PDF). Vol. 5. pp. 23–4. Retrieved 2007-02-06.
  193. ^ Bancroft, 1875, p 23
  194. ^ "Quetzalcoatl the Myth", University of California, San Diego undergrad. project
  195. ^ Smithsonian Issues Statement regarding Book of Mormon http://www.irr.org/mit/smithson.html
  196. ^ "Information from the National Museum of Natural History". Retrieved 2006-05-11.
  197. ^ a b "The Smithsonian Institution's 1996 "Statement Regarding the Book of Mormon"". Retrieved 2006-05-11.
  198. ^ Givens 2002, p. 132
  199. ^ "National Geographic Letter on the Book of Mormon". Retrieved 2007-11-28.

References