Svayam bhagavan

This article is about a philosophical concept: original form of God, Krishna. For other meanings, see Krishna (disambiguation) and Bhagavan (disambiguation).

Svayam bhagavan (svayam bhagavān kṛṣṇa in IAST) is a Sanskrit term referring to Krishna being accepted across many traditions of Vaishnavism as the source of all, in the conception of monotheistic God. Within Hinduism, Krishna is perceived from a variety of perspectives. This concept is specific to certain Vaishnava traditions such as Orthodox Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Vallabha Sampradaya, and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars including Vishnu. A distinguishing feature of the Vaishnava teachings is that God, Krishna or Vishnu, is a real person and His variegated creation is also real.

In the above-mentioned Vaishnava traditions, Krishna worship and understanding as the Supreme is believed to have occurred since the existence of the creatures began. Brahma was believed to be the first Vaishnava. Shiva Mahadeva is also believed to be an early Vaishnava. The ancient Prajapaties are all believed to be Vaishnavas. Narada who is the born child of Brahma, is a Vaishnava. The pure monotheistic Vaishnava religion is believed to have begun with the beginning of history. In " the recent times man arrived once again at the instinctive monotheism of the Aryans and Vaishnavas."

Associated Vedanta philosophy - Acintya Bheda Abheda

Meaning

The Sanskrit term svayam bhagavan (svayam bhagavān in IAST) is generally translated as the Original Personality of Godhead. Where as according to Gaudiya specific point of view the term Supreme Personality of Godhead or Supreme God may also apply to the other, non-different, features of Krishna or Vishnu, such as Narayana. There are a number of meanings of the name 'Krishna', (kṛṣṇa in IAST). The word in Sanskrit has the literal meaning of "black" or "dark". The Brahma Samhita describes Krishna's personal complexion as being "tinged with the hue of blue clouds", and he is often depicted in paintings with a blue or dark-blue skin. In murtis, Krishna is more commonly portrayed as being dark skinned or black. For instance the Jagannatha deity (a form of Krishna, whose name means Master and Origin of the World) at Puri is black in colour, with his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, both having much lighter complexions.

The Gaudiya tradition explains the primary meaning of the name Krishna as being “all-attractive”. This is justified by an interpretation of a verse in the Mahābhārata, as given in the Chaitanya Charitamrita. Commentators from different Vaisnava traditions on the Vishnu sahasranama offer explanations on a similar lines.

Contemporary Vaisnava acaryas present the following explanation: "The color of the Personality of Godhead, Krsna, is described here as nilotpala-dala, meaning that it is like that of a lotus flower with petals tinted blue and white. People always ask why Krsna is blue. The color of the Lord has not been imagined by an artist. The color of the Lord is not poetical imagination. There are authoritative descriptions in the Brahma Samhita, Srimad-Bhagavatam, Bhagavad-gita and many of the Puranas of the Lord's body, His weapons and all other paraphernalia."

Further information: Krishna; Names of God; Kṛṣṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead; and List of titles and names of Krishna

Sources

Some principal Upanishads, many of the Puranas, and one of the earliest commentaries on the Vedanta Sutras appear to directly support views of the Vallabha Sampradaya, the Nimbarka Sampradaya, and followers of Caitanya Mahaprabhu that Krishna is the supreme Personality of Godhead. This evidence was summarized by the 16th century author Jiva Goswami in some of his works such as Krsna-sandarbha.

The Mahābhārata is one of the earliest texts to explicitly provide a detailed descriptions of Krishna as a the Supreme Personality. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna, on the battlefield.

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krsna himself teaches Arjuna the nature of the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the different processes of Yoga, ultimately culminating in devotional surrender to himself:

• "I am the goal, the sustainer, the master, the witness, the abode, the refuge, and the most dear friend. I am the creation and the annihilation, the basis of everything, the resting place and the eternal seed."
• "But what need is there, Arjuna, for all this detailed knowledge? With a single fragment of Myself I pervade and support this entire universe."
• "If hundreds of thousands of suns were to rise at once into the sky, their radiance might resemble the effulgence of the Supreme Person in that universal form."
• "Abandon all varieties of religion and just surrender unto Me. I shall deliver you from all sinful reactions. Do not despair."

Virtually every one of the Puranas tells Krsna's life-story or some highlights from it.

Other Vedic sources such as the Rig Veda and Panini's works also support references to the worship of Krishna as the the object of Bhakti.

Further information: Krishna in Mahābhārata

Comparision of views

File:Cc1.jpg.jpg

20th C. English language version of Chaitanya's biography, translated by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.

While there is a difference between the forms of Krishna and how he is normally worshiped or understood in the different Vaishnava traditions there is a unity as to his divinity is concerned. The classification of the divinity of original or avatara features is according to Gaudiya Vaishnava views is done in a three categories, and attributed to Caitanya Mahaprabhu who it is believed have separated the following:

1. svayam-rupam (bhagavan svayam),
2. tad-ekatma rupam
3. avesa

According to the 16 century biography when Chaitanya first met Sanatana Goswami, he made sure that the principle of Krishna being the svayam bhagavan and the overview of the theory of avatara is transmited in detail. Some Gaudiya concluded that is of a critical importance. A number of traditions previous to Caitanya and Vallabhacarya had considered Krishna as an avatara, or a full avatara, as the case with Madhva. This exclusive definition of avatara was presented differently to Sanatana Goswami based on the Upanishadas and Bhagavatam direct meanings. It can be seen as non exclusive and does not contradict previous theories. Svayam in Svayam rupa does not imply one and only, and all previous conceptions by other Vaishnava tradtions fall under second catogory, tad ekatma rupa (meaining: one that one and not different). Svayam as a term means not depending on others or being himself. This appears to be the foundation of the monotheism and is often misunderstood.

Concept of svayaṁ-rūpa is absent from previous traditions. Rūpa Gosvāmī has described the svayaṁ-rūpa in his Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta, Pūrva-khaṇḍa, verse 12: ananyāpekṣi yad rūpaṁ svayaṁ-rūpaḥ sa ucyate. "The form of the Supreme Personality of Godhead that does not depend on other forms is called svayaṁ-rūpa, the original form." Original is an English interpretation, but if you could expand, it will be himself, or myself. Bhagavan Himself, bhagavan svayam. It actually the second meaning of original as being special that applies here as well.

The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms are also described in the Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta (Pūrva-khaṇḍa, verse 14):

yad rūpaṁ tad-abhedena svarūpeṇa virājate

ākṛtyādibhir anyādṛk sa tad-ekātma-rūpakaḥ

"The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms simultaneous to svayaṁ-rūpa form and are nondifferent. At the same time by thier bodily features and specific activities they appear to be different." While referring to a huge topic in itself, acintya-bheda-abheda, non-difference, its important to note that this concept is mainly referring however to relation of the saktiman and the sakti, not relation between tad-ekātma-rūpas, as there is no implication of differences. The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms are divided into two categories—svāṁśa and vilāsa – in this essay, comparing Narayana forms with forms of Krsna, we are concerned mainly with the svāṁśa but without going into further separating categories.

The deity of Tulasi Krishna at Udupi,
(Krishna, is the main deity worshiped by the followers of Madhvacharya)

Falling under category of tad-ekātma-rūpa Visvakarma Sukta of Rig Veda (10.82) refers to Garbhodakasayi Viṣṇu as the Supreme: The waters verily first retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the navel of the unborn (ajah), in which all beings abide.

This is also confirmed in the Bhagavad-gītā (7.7), where the Lord says, mattaḥ parataraṁ nānyat: "There is no truth superior to Me." Some consider it to be the reference to tad-ekatma rupa and thus not contradicting views of Madhvacharya or Ramanuja.

Both of the accepted acharyas Madhvacharya or Ramanuja maintained that Narayana is the original form of Vishnu who is the supreme and that appeared to them being supported by the shastras, Vedic scriptures or scriptures in pursuance of the Vedic version. This fact is accepted universally across all Vaishnava traditions, but is classified in the category of tad-ekātma-rūpa, and Narayana is never called or refered as svayam bhagavan or svayaṁ.

Manyfold evidence to the essence of this classification in monotheism of the Gaudiya Vaishnava line is based on the Vedas and not solely contained in the Vedas. Its also considered to be guhyatam, or secretive. Some cosider this being the reason, why two out of four Vaishnava sampradayas appear to ignore this concept in the theology. Others suggest that this view on svayaṁ-rūpa is specific to the followers of raga bhakti, or emotional devotion. Two above mentioned Sampradayas (out of four) prior to Caitanya tradition, did not follow this specific path.

Bhagavad-gītā (18.64) states that this bhakti-yoga is secretive: sarva-guhyatamaṁ bhūyaḥ śṛṇu me paramaṁ vacaḥ - "Just hear from Me again about the most confidential part of the instructions in Bhagavad-gītā." it is also described as such in Bhagavata Purana] In both cases Krsna is speaking about himself, aham and me in Sanskrit mean, I am and Me respectively. Thus svayaṁ-rūpa refers to personalism of the concept.

Evidence from Rig Veda and Bhagavata Purana introduction

Evidence based on the Rg Veda is derived from the Brahma gayatri mantra. The essential nature of this mantra is that even it is contained in the original Veda, that Vaishnavas conclude was mainly meant for the actions that prescribed under the path of karma, or sakama vaidic, its meaning is universal to the Vedic tradition, and its this mantra that is forming the basis of the Bhagavatam. In fact the correlation between first verse of the Bhagavatam. The Brahma gayatri found in Rg Veda 3.62.10 is one of the corner stones of Jiva Goswami presentation and all other major Vashnava traditions. yantradhikrtya gayatrim is Bhagavata. That is the purpose of Bhagavata and first verse of the Bhagavata is the commentary on the Brahma gayatri.

Krishna and Balarama meet their father and mother - Vasudeva and Devaki. Thus a personal name of Krishna as Vaasudeva or son of Vasudeva, and Devakinandana, son of Devaki. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma

It must be noted that just before this first sloka of the Bhagavata one may find even more quintessential introduction or sloka, oṁ namo bhagavate vāsudevāya. Vaasudeva is argued by some Vaishnavas is addressing both, the fact that Krsna is the avatara, who came as the son of Vasudeva, and also addresses the fact that it's the principal name of Krsna-Vaasudeva who is in the historic origin of the Vaisnava tradition and is the worshipable Deity of satvatas, devotees.

Creation and Bhagavata perspective

The sarga, or subtle creation, is normally discussed in sruti in terms of Narayana or Vishnu expanding into Viraja and then Maha-Viṣṇu glancing over pradhana, and that is the start of actual function of creation. However there is a more subtle, mantric start to that process. Other is the reason is vaasudeva sarvam iti words of the Bhagavad Gita that may shed some light, but as its confirmed in the Gita one who can understand it is rear great soul.

According to some commentators of the Upanishads the key to this is the instruction of the Gita where Svayam bhagavan himself said: bhaktya mam abhijanati- "The Supreme Personality of Godhead, Svayam bhagavan, can be understood only by the devotional service." In the second introductory verse of the third canto of Bhagavata He is addressed as bhagavān akhileśvaraḥ - the supreme controller. The primary rasas shown by Krsna are not developed, and can not be found in the relation to Maha-Viṣṇu, in fact they are not found in a relationship that a devotee may have in Vaikuntha to a specific form of Lord Narayana. Its these specific rasas of madhurya, vatsalya and sakhya that are essential to Vallabhacharya and Gaudiya understanding of the reasons for the composition and inclusion of intimate relationships and Krsna pastimes before the description of the process of creation. A significant portion of Bhagavata refers to rasa prior to creation, and some maintain that its not incidental. Thus according to some early commentators as well as later Gaudiya and Nimbaraka writers, it critical part of the cosmological presentation of Bhagavata and are purposeful..

In opinion of Gaudiya the monumental cosmological work, Brihad Bhagavatamrita, by Sanatana Goswami has illustrated this principle, not just in terms of comparative cosmology, but also in terms of cosmology of adi-rasa. The cosmological principle of the four dhamas is the key of the graphical presentation, but it is also the answer to the dilemma often presented by the followers of other sampradyas, such as Sri Vaisnavas, who claim that there is no factual scriptural basis for the claim that Krsna is the source of avataras. In fact they are right, for he has nothing to do 'directly' with the process of the 'avatar-creation'. He is by Himself, svayam. He is in fact not engaged and non engaging, that is his independence, he does not even, at least in this his original form, carry symbols of Viṣṇu, he only carries his own flute, and that is the pleasure of his devotees.

Original Purusa of the Vedas

The text of Purusa sukta refering to púruṣaḥ evá idám sárvam - "This Purusa (original person) is all there is." as explained by Svayam bhagavan in Bhagavad-gītā: Vedaiś ca sarvair aham eva vidyam - Bg 15.15 By all the Vedas, I am to be known.

However one may raise a question: are the avataras of Krsna and Balarama are appearing every yuga or only once a day of Brahma? That is the background to the 'physiological' question of the Vidura about them as the Original personalities - kaccit purāṇau puruṣau svanābhya. They are original, Ancient Purusas, thus are not obliged to appear every yuga. They are the original and origin to all 'working' avataras or svāṁśas.

It may not be enough for a person who does not want to recognize the simple fact that Vedantist has more to do with Vedas then Mimamsicas, for they look for the purport of the Vedas, not for the words themselves. Just as the demigods are looking up to the feet of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu. These are the words the Rg Veda that are accepted as the foundation of Vaisnava tradition. But even more esoteric to it is how Upanisadas present it, not just as impersonal all-pervading oneness, the actual meaning of the words Rg (1.22.20), oṃ tad viṣṇoḥ paramam padam sadā paśyanti sūrayaḥ: "All the suras look always toward the feet of Lord Viṣṇu." - is explained in the Gopala Tapani Upanishad Upanishad that paraphrases the original of the Vedic hymn (1.22): etad visnoh paramam padam ye nityodyuktah samyajante na kaman / tesam asau gopa-rupah prayatnat prakasayad atma-padam tadaiva. - "To they who always diligently worship Lord Viṣṇu's transcendental form, the Lord, in His original form as a cowherd boy, shows His lotus feet." One thing is to look towards the feet of Viṣṇu, another is the end result of the worship, gopa-rupah.

Out of 108 principal Upanishad, each belonging to a particular Veda, Krsna Upanishad refers to the original, saksad, Hari as gopa-rüpa. (1.10-12):

gopa-rūpo hariḥ sakṣan maya-vigraha-dharaṇaḥ

durbodhaṁ kuhakaṁ tasya mayayā mohitaṁ jagat

durjayā sa suraiḥ sarvair dhṛṣṭi-rūpo bhaved dvijaḥ

rudro yena kṛto vaṁsas tasya māyā jagat katham

balaṁ janaṁ suraṇaṁ vai teṣāṁ janaṁ hṛtaṁ kṣaṇat

śeṣa-nago bhaved ramaḥ kṛṣṇo brahmaiva sasvatam

"The Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as a cowherd boy. Cheated and bewildered by His illusory potency, the world could not understand His true identity.

"Even all the demigods cannot defeat the Lord's Maya potency. By the Lord's Yogamaya potency Brahma became a stick and Siva became a flute. How did the Lord's Maya potency manifest the entire universe?

"Knowledge is the strength of the demigods. The Lord's Maya potency steals away that knowledge in a single moment. Lord Sesanaga appeared in His original form as Lord Balarama. The eternal Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as Lord Krishna."

One must stress, that Prabhupada, just as the Vedas themselves, often refer to all forms of Supreme as viṣṇu-tattvas, or nondifferent Personalities of Godhead, and the acceptance of Viṣṇu as the Supreme. That is the meaning of tad-ekatma rupa. "Eka-atma", one and the same, the same self. In fact the question who is superior Viṣṇu or Krsna should not be answered in any artificial or superficial manner, as if to minimise one against the other. Both are transcendent and non-different. However Krsna possesses qualities that are absent in Viṣṇu. In fact human mind can not correctly perceive a transcendent or even transcendental personality. By definition of being transcendent of course and in combination with the concept of personality, that many of us share. That is the reason, that at the first superficial glance, an impersonal feature of the Supreme Godhead is so attractive, but this inability to perceive, does not limit ones ability to achieve, in fact it forces one to act and think is the only way conducive to attaining that vision of transcendent person, via sastra-caksu, through the perfected vision of the scripture.

So the next question of the Vidura concerns the effectively possible answer, to which all doubts should be dispelled. How is Krsna's son Aniruddha, who is also the cause of Mahā-Viṣṇu, doing? This logic is hard to argue with. Why? Because He is the cause of the Ṛg Veda.

Reason of absence in Veda

While Purusha is clearly mentioned in the Veda, the name Krishna is not. Vishnu is mentioned only a few times. Some scholars conclude that its related with the fact that the monotheism of Vaishnavas was formed later. From the perspective of Gaudiya Nimbaraka and Vallabhacharya, there is a suggestion for Krishna not being visible thought the media of the Veda. The suggestion is that He is known only thought devotion."He is always bewildering to the nondevotees, but He is always seen by the devotees by dint of their pure devotional service to Him." Some consider that Vedas have specific purposes, described as karma – sacrifices as described in the Vedas, knowledge, jnana – in Upanishad; and according to some adherents of Vaishnavism, those with these motivations are not qualified to be considered for bhakti-marga or path of pure devotion. This position is disputed by Mimamsicas and is largely apologetic.

Main evidence from Bhagavata Purana

Jiva Gosvami’s Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas summarize Vedic evidence on the Supremacy of Kṛṣṇa as bhagavān svayam

In accordance with the Bhagavata tradition its believed that Krishna is fully represetned in his Original From in the Bhagavata Purana and at the end of the list of avataras text concludes:

ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge

"In every millennium, whenever there is any trouble for the obedient rulers, the Lord appears. He also appears for the sake of His pure unalloyed devotees. The surrendered rulers and the pure devotees are always strictly under the control of the Lord, and they are never disobedient to the desires of the Lord. The Lord is therefore always attentive to them." Here it is believed that in accordance with direct interpretation Krsna as svayam-bhagavān means svayam rupa. Not all of the commentators of the Bhagavata provide this distinction. However a majority of contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as significant.

One verse of the Gita (avajānanti māṁ mūḍhā) provides a suggestion often used as a rhetoric by those who apologetic in the Krishna monotheistic traditions. Futher to this practitioners of the bhakti in the traditions of Caitanya or Vallabhacharya sometimes outline three kinds of misunderstandings. First is common man may mistake Krishna to be just a regular historic personality, second one (in relation to mayavadi) may consider that he is Brahman covered in gross matter and the third (in relation to misra-bhakti followers of different Vaishnava traditions) one may consider Him to be incarnation of Viṣṇu, subordinate to Viṣṇu or Narayana. Its usually disputed but Krishna centered traditions base this on the following quote from Brahma Sutras: visesam ca darsayati "The Supreme Personality of Godhead reveals Himself to His pure devotees." Some say that one of the distinguishing characteristics of such devotees is absence of pride. compassion to others and presence of the intense feeling of separation.

"He regretted everyone's misfortune, including his own. The pure devotee of the Lord thinks himself most unfortunate. That is due to excessive love for the Lord and is one of the transcendental perceptions of viraha, the suffering of separation."

Yadu realization

In accordance with puranic records its believed that Yadus were "scholars of the Vedas, they verified the Vedic hymns: eko devaḥ. sarva-bhūtādhivāsaḥ antaryāmī and vṛṣṇīnāṁ para-devatā. The Yadus, therefore, accepted Lord Kṛṣṇa as the Supersoul incarnated in their family, and not more than that."

Source of Para-Vasudeva

File:Heliodoruspillar.gif

The first inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE.
This Garuda-standard of Vasudeva (Krishna, the God of Gods was erected here by the devotee Heliodoros,

One may note evidence of the belief in Krishna as the source of the Para-Vasudeva. Baladeva Vidyabhusana in his commentary to one of the Upanishads connected to the Atharva Veda refers to this evidence:

gopala-tapanim naumi ya krsnam svayam isvaram

kara-stharava-sankasam sandarsayati sad-dhiyah

Glory to the Gopala Tapani Upanishad, which to the pious reveals Lord Krsna, the original Personality of Godhead, the Supersoul near to all moving and unmoving creatures.

The word used is krsna svayam isvaram, the paraphrase of the Bhagavatam verse 1.3.28 that Jiva Goswami has called a key sutra. It's not only key to the Bhagavatam, its believed to be the key to Vedanta and thus all the Vedas. It's believed that svayam is specific to Krishna only, and not to any other form of Vishnu. This fact is disputed by some, as Narayana or Vishnu is not present in the list of the avataras in the Bhagavatam.

Evidence from four Kumaras

According to Upanishads its believed that when Brahma, who is said to be original created being, was approached by the sages Four Kumaras he was presented with critical question: kah paramo devah – Who is Supreme God? kuto mrtyur bibheti – Who does death fears? kasya jnanenakhilam vijnatam bhavati – By knowing Whom, does everything else gets realised? kenedam visvam samsaratiti – Who is that person, who is behind the repetition of creation of this Universe? His own original or sweet form, Sva-bimbaṁ to the is not manifested very often in the Universe, loka-locanam. Gaudiya Vaishnavas quote sources that claim that it happens only ones in a universal day of Brahma, and its only at that time its believed, once every fourteen manvantaras, each seventy one divya-yugas duration. Some religions do not even consider it possible to see the God. To answer four Kumaras Brahma needed to relate this secret word of the seed mantra. And this is believed to be the answer to the question, who is supreme god and how he creates this world.

krsno vai paramam daivatam govindan mrtyur bibheti

gopijanavallabha-jnanena taj jnatam bhavati svahayedam samsarati

Brahma replied to the sages: "Krisna is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Death fears Govinda. By knowing Gopijanavallabha everything becomes realized. By pronouncing the word "svaha" the Personality of Godhead created the world.

Used as another scriptural evidence, Sanat-Kumara Samhita confirms that this Kama Gayatri is the foundational structure of the Goloka, believed to be the above of Krishna, who is the original Vaasudeva:

karnikayam likhed vahni-

putitam mandala-dvayam

tasya madhye likhed bijam

sadhyakhyam karma samyutam

"In the whorl of the lotus flower which is Lord Krishna's transcendental abode, the Gopala mantra is written."

Gopala Mantra

Majority of Vedic followers accept that Gopala mantra is falling under the category of shruti part of the Vedas, which may imply the tradition that is originally both monotheistic and non explicit. Upanishads provide the following answer, which is believed to be relating the mantra. Gaudiya believe that this sound was received directly from svayam bhagavan:

tasmat krsna eva paro devas tam dhyayet tam raset tam bhajet tam yajed ity om tat sad iti

Therefore, Krishna is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. One should meditate upon Him, glorify Him, serve Him and worship Him. Om tat sat.

That is why the essential meditation of the Brahma and everyone who is reading about how he received this mantra, prior to creation, is Krishna and his lila as in a shorthand presented by Uddhava in the second and the third chapters, separated by a meaningful pause. Exactly same pastimes, or almost exactly the same,

---

Difference to other sampradayas

Two sampradayas out of many Vaisnava lines oppose the concept that Krsna is the original form of Godhead.

While some sampradyas considers moksa to be the ultimate goal, majority of Bhagavatas accept prayer Uddhava where he states the basis of the understanding, that bhakti is above and is superior to even moksa?

Among the Six Goswamis, one represents the ancient line of Srisampradaya, just as Baladeva Vidyabhusana represents the perfection of the achievements for a Tattvavadi sannyasi, who gave Gaudiya a take on the Vedanta sutra, in addition and on the basis of Bhagavata proper.

Historical records

Not just historical records of the Greeks show existence of the bhakti tradition to Krsna-Vaasudeva, besides that, even the Panini will give an evidence to the ancient root of Krsna-Vaasudeva bhakti, since he quotes on bhakti to Vaasudeva from Arjunas example. Panini is accepted as one of the most ancient records.

Conclusion of the Upanishads

Gopala Tapani Upanishad conclusion, tasmat krsna eva paro devas tam dhyayet tam raset and do just that meditate and relish, dhyayet and raset, on Krishna, the supreme God. The words used paro deva same epithet used for Vishnu. For that is the conclusion of the key verses of the Gita too, mad mana bhava, mad bhakto, and giving up all other concepts as inferior, even if it was as perfect in tattva.

Further information: Gopala Tapani Upanishad

The Bhakti

Main article: Bhakti

Bhakti by definition of Vasnavas is confined to one deity of Krsna or Vishnu.

The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country. A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a Gopi, is perhaps the oldest work of this genre. Kulashekhara's Mukundamala was another notable offering of this early stage.

he lokāḥ śṛṇuta prasūti-maraṇa-vyādheś cikitsām imāṁ

yoga-jñāḥ samudāharanti munayo yāṁ yājñavalkyādayaḥ

antar-jyotir ameyam ekam amṛtaṁ kṛṣṇākhyam āpīyatāṁ

tat pītaṁ paramauṣadhaṁ vitanute nirvāṇam ātyantikam

O people, please hear of this treatment for the disease of birth and death! It is the name of Kṛṣṇa. Recommended by Yājñavalkya and other expert yogīs steeped in wisdom, this boundless, eternal inner light is the best medicine, for when drunk it bestows complete and final liberation. Just drink it!

— Kulasekhara, Mukunda Mala Stotra, translation by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami

Of the many hundreds of poetic Sanskrit stotras-songs of glorification offered to the Supreme Lord, His devotees, and the holy places of His pastimes—King Kulaśekhara's Mukunda-mālā-stotra is one of the most perennially famous. Some say that its author conceived it as a garland (mālā) of verses offered for Lord Kṛṣṇa's pleasure.

Monotheism and spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement

"Krsna holding the Govardhana Hill in defiance of pagan practices and establishing Monothesim," ca. 1790

The monotheistic tradition of Krsna worship spread rapidly from Northern India into the south, with the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (12th century CE) becoming a landmark of devotional, Krishna-based, literature.

While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets who composed in the regional languages of India. This poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century CE, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century CE), Vallabhacharya (15th century CE) and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (16th century CE) were the founders of the most influential of these schools. Chaitanya's tradition, called Gaudiya Vaishnavism, sees Krishna as the supreme God, rather than as an avatar of Vishnu. Followers of Chaitanya maintain that he is himself an incarnation of Krishna.

Krishna-monotheism in recent times

Since 1966 devotion to Krishna has spread from within India and is now practiced in many places around the globe, including America, Europe, Africa, Russia and South America. This is largely due to the growth of the ISKCON movement, the largest part of which is officially known as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON). The driving force behind the change was the movement's founder, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, who was instructed by his guru, Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura, to write about Krishna in the English language and to share Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world.

Academic study

Main article: Krishnology

Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others.

See also

• Vishnu
• Radha
• Balarama
• Rama
• Vrindavan
• Hare Krishna
• Bhagavad Gita
• Monotheism
• Gopala Tapani Upanishad

Primary and Secondary References

• Elkman, S.M. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
• Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of Oxford. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Ganguli, K.M. (1883 -1896). The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa. Kessinger Publishing. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• Ganguli, K.M. (1896). Bhagavad-Gita (Chapter V). The Mahabharata, Book 6. Calcutta: Bharata Press.
• Wilson, H.H. (1840). The Vishnu Purana, a System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition: Translated from the Original Sanscrit and Illustrated by Notes Derived Chiefly from Other Puranas. Printed for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.
• Prabhupada, A.C. (1988). Srimad Bhagavatam. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.
• Kaviraja, K. (1974). Sri Caitanya-Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja. Imprint unknown. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• S.D. Goswami (1998), The Qualities of Sri Krsna, GNPress, pp. 152 pages, ISBN 0911233644
• Garuda Pillar of Besnagar, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908-1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129.
• Rowland Jr, B. (1935). "Notes on Ionic Architecture in the East". American Journal of Archaeology. 39 (4): 489–496. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
• Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved 2008-04-12.</ref>
• Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities". History of Religions. 26 (3): 333–335. Retrieved 2008-04-12.
• Beck, Guy L. (Ed.) (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791464156

External links

• ISKCON publishing online) (krishna.com)
• Sources on the Search for the Historical Krishna, Prof. N.S. Rajaram (veda.harekrsna.cz)
• Sri Krishna - Differences in Realisation & Perception of the Supreme (stephen-knapp.com)
• The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam) (srimadbhagavatam.com)