Frederick Townsend Ward

Frederick Townsend Ward (1831-1862) was a sailor, mercenary and soldier of fortune famous for his military victories for Imperial China during the Taiping Rebellion.

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Early Life

Frederick Townsend Ward was born in Salem, Massachusetts on November 29, 1831. Salem, famous then and now for the Salem Witch Trials, was a town of seafarers and industry known for hard, practical men and women. Ward may have learned much about human nature, negotiation, and leadership in this environment. He was rebellious as a youth and his father removed him from high school in 1847, either from Ward's own demand or as a punishment according to different accounts. Ward became second mate on the Hamilton, a Clipper Ship commanded by Captain William Allen, a family friend. (Carr, 40 & Smith, 25). Ward flourished in the rough-and-tumble environment and Allen recalled him as possessing traits of “reckless daring” and being on the whole a valuable officer. (Smith, 26).

In 1847 the Hamilton sailed from New York to Hong Kong. It is unlikely Ward saw much beyond the city since Qing Dynasty travel restrictions forbade foreigners from venturing too far inland.

In 1849 Ward enrolled in the “American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy” in Vermont (now Norwich University). The curriculum included military tactics, strategy, and drill. After a few months Ward left school and never returned to formal education. In 1850 he shipped out as first mate of a clipper ship captained by his father.

The 1850s

Ward travelled widely in this decade and may have met Garibaldi in Panama or Peru in 1850. In 1852 Ward met the Filibuster William Walker in Tehauntapec, Mexico and joined Walker’s force, participating in Walker's Sonora Filibuster Invasion of Mexico in 1853. With Walker Ward learned firsthand the practice of recruiting, training, and commanding mercenary troops.

He would also profited from Walker’s negative example. Walker has been described as “excessively vain, weak minded and ambitious… his weakness renders him cruel…” (Carr 59). Later in China, Ward would augment his charisma by showing both respect and personal concern for his Western and Chinese troops whom he referred to as “my people”. Together with the mystique he cultivated this was to cement strong loyalty from his troops.

However Ward resigned Walker’s campaign, starting a scrap metal business in Mexico in 1854. When the business failed he returned to sailing, traveling to Hong Kong where he may have turned down an offer to filibuster for Taipings.

Ward's practical military education continued in 1854 while serving as a lieutenant with the French Army in the Crimean War. There he gained valuable experience under fire and is believed to have learned much about weapons and tactics, particularly siege techniques and the use of riflemen in mobile platoons rather than fixed firing lines (Carr 65, Smith 28). It is also likely that he also learned that frontal assault is of limited value against disciplined long range firepower. He did not serve throughout the war, however, as he was "allowed to resign" after being insubordinate to a superior officer.

Ward is next known to have been in China in 1857 seeking engagement as a mercenary, instead settling for serving as first mate on a coastal steamship, dangerous work in those waters. Some believe that he served as a mercenary for Juarez in Mexico and later a Texas Ranger in 1858. In 1859 it is known that together with his brother he worked for his father as a shipping agent in New York City.

China

Ward's position at the end of the 1850s was similar to that of Ulysses S. Grant in Galena, Illinois. Former soldiers with uncertain prospects, both worked dispiritedly for their fathers in offices alongside their brothers. It is almost certain neither know of the others existence at the time. However, while Grant said he never anticipated the fate that awaited him in the Civil War, Ward was actively saving money and planning for another chance at military glory: this time on behalf of Imperial China.

According to an 1862 account Ward and his brother arrived in Shanghai, China in 1860 for the purpose of trading, perhaps as part of their father’s business. Their arrival coincided with a buildup of the forces of the Taiping Rebellion in the area.

Ward was never to return to United States. It is almost certain that he had ulterior motives for his return to China. He had little respect for the Shanghai business practices and took a position as executive officer on the “Confucius,” an armed riverboat.

The “Confucius” was commanded by an American employed by the “Shanghai Pirate Suppression Bureau.” This organization was funded by Yang Fang, a prominent Ning Po banker and mercantilist, and run by Shanghai governmental officials. It was essentially a front shielding the Chinese government from explicit association with Western military forces. The Manchu Imperial government did not wish to show any weakness to the Western Powers.

Progressive Chinese officials of the period recognized that traditional Imperial forces, frequently staffed by Confucian scholars and conscripts rather than experienced soldiers and officers, were not equal to the task of defeating the Taiping forces. The average Chinese of the day had little loyalty to the Manchus and, from the Manchu point of view, even less military aptitude. Furthermore as Taiping armies edging closer to Shanghai there was no time to train native conscripts in conventional warfare, whether Chinese or Western.

Western soldiers-of-fortune and seamen with diverse military experience could be found in Shanghai. However the local military and diplomatic representatives of the Western Powers discouraged foreign involvement in domestic Chinese matters, even by Westerners in Chinese employ. The concern was that if Westerners were seen to be violating their neutrality the Taipings might block downriver trade from the interior to Shanghai.

Ward showed bravery and initiative onboard the “Confucius” and Shanghai officials took notice. Rising above racism they recognized that his abilities and experience made him an ideal candidate to lead a mercenary army against advancing Taiping forces. In the Spring of 1860 Ward was hired to command the “Shanghai Foreign Arms Corps.”

The Shanghai Foreign Arms Corps

By June of 1860 Ward’s had a polyglot force of 100 Westerners armed with the best small arms obtainable in Shanghai (including Colt revolvers). Despite Ward's protests that his forces were not yet fully trained Shanghai officials forced him to take his men into action alongside Imperial forces in retaking two captured towns. This then led to an assault the Taiping occupied and fortified city of Sung-Chiang.

Without artillery this was a near-impossible task and the attack failed, the defeated force returning to Shanghai. However, by mid July Ward had recruited additional Westerners, together with more than 80 Filipinos, and purchased several artillery pieces. Once again his forces assaulted Sung-Chiang, succeeding at enormous cost: out of a force of roughly 250 men 62 were killed and 100 wounded, including Ward himself.

Ward discouraged looting but the notoriety and attractive pay of Ward's force attracted new recruits. However local Western officials condemned Ward as an inflammatory filibuster. More problematic for Ward, the Taipings were now aware of their new and potent enemy.

On August 2, 1860 Ward led the Foreign Arms Corps against Ch’ing-p’u, another fortified Taiping town on the approaches to Shanghai. This time the Taipings were prepared and ambushed the Corps with a withering barrage of close-range musket fire. The Corps suffered 50% casualties in 10 minutes and Ward himself was shot in the left jaw, scarring him for life and leaving him with a speech impediment.

The force retreated to Shanghai, returning with additional artillery to lay siege to Ch’ing-p’u several days later. However Chung Wang, the Taiping’s best military leader, dispatched 20,000 troops to break the siege and the remnants of the Foreign Arms Corps fled back to the Sung-Chiang area, where despite the efforts of Burgevine, Ward’s second in command, the Corps soon “ceased to function as an organized entity.” (Smith, 34)

Chung Wang’s forces laid siege to Shanghai but were beaten back by Western and Imperial forces within the City. Ward was there for medical treatment but left Shanghai, apparently secretly, in late 1860 for further treatment. The remnants of the Corps remained more or less under the command of Burgevine.

Ward returned to Shanghai in the late fall of 1860, and was able to re-enlist the best surviving elements of the Corps. He then began to recruit and train more men, offering terms attractive enough to cause desertion among the many British warships in port.

Facing arrest and numerous political difficulties arising from the Western governments’ desire to remain neutral, Ward became a Chinese subject, stymieing efforts by the British navy and other Western forces to stop him.

In May 1861 Ward led the Foreign Arms Corps back into battle at Chi’ng-p’u, but again the assault failed with heavy casualties. This was the last major engagement of the Foreign Arms Corps in its primarily Western configuration.

Judgments as to the effectiveness of the Foreign Army Corps effectiveness vary depending upon the sympathies of the author. The most recent Ward biographer, Caleb Carr, in his 1992 work seems fairly generous in his estimation of Ward’s accomplishments. However author Richard J. Smith has stated:

“Repeatedly sent into the field without adequate preparation by Ward's frantic sponsors, the poorly trained and ill-disciplined contingent stood virtually no chance of success against [the Chung Wang,] Li Hsiu-ch'eng's seasoned troops. Sometimes drunk and always disorderly, the Foreign-Arms Corps depended primarily on the element of surprise and the superiority of Western weapons to obtain victory.” (Smith 33)

Ward clearly recognized the need for change. He adopted a new idea in which the more reliable elements of the Corps would become the nucleus of an effective fighting force, comprised primarily of local Chinese.

The Ever Victorious Army

Credit for the concept of training Chinese in Western military tactics and arming them with the best available weaponry is given variously to Ward, to local Imperial Chinese commander Li Heng-sung, or to Burgevine, who according to some began the training during Ward’s recuperation.

Another factor in reconsidering the use of local Chinese troops may have been the change in mood of the local peasantry. The Taiping forces, despite their “heavenly” origin, were ruthless in their treatment of local populations. In many cases informal militias were formed to conduct guerilla operations and drive out Taiping forces. (Spence, 307)

Whatever the origin of the “Ever Victorious Army” concept may have been, Ward became its champion and after his untimely death no other commander could repeat his success. His development of local Chinese forces ensured his place in history and helped to end the Taiping rebellion.

A training camp was established at Sung-chiang by the summer of 1861. There Ward trained an increasing number of Chinese in western small arms, gunnery, tactics, customs, and drill. Particular care was taken to train the Chinese to hold their fire until their targets were within effective range.

Ward trained his new army to use to Western bugle calls and verbal commands. The military uniforms were most striking, with Indian Sepoy-style turbans and color-coded tunics for branch of arms (Infantry or Artillery). This clothing was initially disliked by the Chinese troops and earned them mockery and the nickname “Imitation Foreign Devils” among the local populace. Eventually the distinct uniforms would become a point of pride.

Another point of pride was their pay, which was both high and consistent by Chinese standards: a strong recruiting feature. The pay was also to compensate for the lack of looting which Ward strongly discouraged, knowing it turned local populaces against soldiers. Other benefits under the new system were better rations, billets, and a better chance of survival in combat.

By January 1862, with about one thousand Chinese soldiers trained and ready, Ward was ready for the field – much to the relief of Shanghai officials, particularly since that same month, Chung Wang’s forces reentered that region with over 120,000 troops in an attempt to cut off, then enter and occupy Shanghai.

Ward led his new army into action in the middle of the month, in Wu-Sung about 10 miles north of Shanghai. Over 25 snow-covered miles from their own headquarters, under a banner carrying a Chinese rendering of Ward’s name (“HUA” in Chinese pronunciation), his forces drove a larger Taiping force from entrenched positions.

A week later Ward, at the head of five hundred men and without artillery support, attacked the city of Kuang-fu-lin, occupied by over 20,000 Taiping troops, just five miles from Ward’s own Headquarters. The Taiping defenders “were filled with dismay and fled precipitately” (Carr, 181).

In February, in joint operations with local Imperial commanders, Ward and five hundred of his men drove the rebels from Ying-ch'i-peng, Ch'en-shan, T'ien-ma-shan, and other areas around Sung-chiang. In the course of these actions against superior numbers, killing or wounding thousands of Taiping, Ward himself suffered wounds including the loss of a finger to a musket ball.

The enraged Taiping commander Chung Wang launched 20,000 soldiers against Sung-chiang, which was defended only by Ward’s force of less than 1500 men. This time Ward caught the Taiping forces in an ambush, killing 2000 with camouflaged artillery and immediately launching an infantry assault from the city which cut off and captured another 800. The Taipings retreated, with Ward capturing a large number of boats bearing Taiping supplies and arms.

This action made Ward’s reputation throughout the Shanghai region amoung Chinese and Westerners. From then on leading Western commanders and politicians supported Ward while funds flowed (relatively) freely from Imperial Coffers and his decisions were no longer second-guessed by Shanghai officials.

The title "The Ever Victorious Army" was officially bestowed by the Imperial Chinese government in March of 1962, and Ward was made first a 4th rank, and then a 3rd Rank mandarin.

Throughout 1862 the Army continued to defeat numerically superior opponents who were often in entrenched positions. Its presence on the battlefield and the example of effective Chinese soldiers served as a "force multiplier" for Imperial Anhui units led by General Li Heng-sung, who joined Ward in mutual respect during joint operations.

In the Summer Chung Wang’s expanding Taiping forces in the area led to threats in many places. Ward needed mobility for his limited forces but the road system was inadequate.

Ward recognized that the rivers and canals in the region were not obstacles but thoroughfares. He secured the use of several riverboats and fitted them out as artillery and troop transports, greatly increasing his army’s effectiveness. Chung Wang himself later “attributed his defeats in the Soochow area to Western steamers. Taiping land forces could contend with ‘foreign devils,’ he believed, but rebel water forces could not.” (Smith, 95).

Ward’s reputation continued to grow but although he hoped to participate in an eventual strike against Nanking, the Taiping capital, this was not to be. The Manchu court had always distrusted Ward and limited the size of his army to a number considerably less than its potential, also controlling Ward’s movements more greatly than those of traditional Chinese commanders.

Nevertheless by September the Ever Victorious Army numbered over 5,000 men, organized in four battalions together with an Artillery Corps, using several riverboats for transport and mobile artillery.

Ward’s Death

On September 21, Ward launched an attack against the city of Tz’u-ch-i, coordinated with British, French, and Imperial Chinese forces. Leading his force at the base of the city wall Ward was shot in the abdomen, his 15th battlefield wound. The Army, spurred into desperate action by the their commander’s condition routed the Taiping defenders.

Knowing he was dying Ward dictated a will that would ensure that his brother, sister, and Chinese wife would be cared for after his death. Ward died on the morning of September 22, 1862, at the age of thirty and at the height of his fame. He is remembered as one of China's greatest military heroes, to whom the salvation of Shanghai is owed.

Ward had led a life of adventure and found both military glory and power over men, but his full historic potential may have been greater. It is speculated that had Ward’s death in China not prevented him from returning to the U.S., he might have become a great military leaders during the American Civil War, which produced many leading Presidents and politicians.

In Memory

In life the American Civil War overshadowed Ward’s accomplishments and in death his deserved fame was overshadowed by that of another man. After Ward’s death the command of the Ever-Victorious army passed first to Burgevine but ultimately to Charles George Gordon , an officer of the British Army better known as "Chinese Gordon."

Gordon’s biographers have diminished, and sometimes completely ignored, Ward’s accomplishments in creating the Army Gordon later commanded. The name “Chinese Gordon” is still better known than that of Ward, although largely due to Gordon’s dramatic death in Khartoum, many years after the end of the Taiping Rebellion.

Ward’s contemporaries and biographers have tried to give Ward his due. Several books on Ward and the Ever Victorious Army were published in the century since his death, and in 1992 the best selling “The Devil Soldier” by renowned historian and novelist Caleb Carr was pulished. The book was immediately “optioned” by Hollywood and Tom Cruise and Director John Woo were at one time working on a movie with a script by Carr. However this project appears to have been abandoned.

Ward is remembered on the headstone of an empty grave in his Salem birthplace, where there is also an Historical Collection dedicated to him at the Essex Institute.

In China a memorial hall, completed in 1877, once stood in Sung-Chiang to protect his grave and to honor his memory, but was first sacked by Japanese invaders and in 1955 demolished by the Communist Government in an attempt to remove all memory of positive Western contribution to Chinese history. Caleb Carr states that “Ward's remains were dug up, and his grave site and shrine were destroyed and paved over. The whereabouts of Ward's bones today are unknown. They have almost certainly been destroyed. A plain headstone over an empty grave [in Salem] is the only memorial to this most noteworthy of nineteenth-century American Adventurers.” (Carr, 5)

However visitors to the Taiping Rebellion Museum in Nanjing have observed a large headstone bearing Ward's name created by the American Legion on May 29, 1923. This is apparently the headstone originally in Ward’s memorial hall and salvaged.

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American Legion Vistors to Ward's tomb in China, prior to World War II

A recent visitor to Sung-Chiang wrote: “The grave of Ward, a Protestant, revered as a Chinese Confucian hero, with a temple in his honour, now lies under the altar of a Roman Catholic church [built in 1982], whilst the land itself is the property of the local Buddhist monastery in a Communist state…Ward has not been forgotten in Sungkiang and local memory still has Ward's bones under the high altar of the Catholic church.” (Stevens)

In Fiction

Ward turns up in George Macdonald Frasier's fictional Flashman Papers (Flashman and the Dragon) as a Yangtsee opium smuggler (apochryphal) and as the embryonic leader of the Ever Victorious Army.

It may be that the main character of the Tom Cruise movie, "The Last Samurai", was inspired by Frederick Townsend Ward. Cruise was involved in the earlier attempt to make a film specifically about Ward, based on "The Devil Soldier".

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