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For other uses, see Think tank (disambiguation).

A think tank (also called a policy institute) is an organization, institute, corporation, or group that conducts research and engages in advocacy in areas such as social policy, political strategy, economy, science or technology issues, industrial or business policies, or military advice.[1] Many think tanks are non-profit organizations, which some countries such as the US and Canada provide with tax exempt status. While many think tanks are funded by governments, interest groups, or businesses, some think tanks also derive income from consulting or research work related to their mandate.[2]

There are different opinions about think tanks; supporters like the National Institute for Research Advancement hail them as "one of the main policy actors in democratic societies ..., assuring a pluralistic, open and accountable process of policy analysis, research, decision-making and evaluation".[3] Opposing them, critics like SourceWatch have called them "little more than public relations fronts ... generating self-serving scholarship that serves the advocacy goals of their industry sponsors."[4]

History

Since "think tank" is a term that has only found use since the 1950s, there is still some debate over what constitutes the first think tank. One candidate is the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies (RUSI), founded in 1831 at the initiative of the Duke of Wellington. Another is the Fabian Society of Britain, founded in 1884 to promote gradual social change. The Brookings Institution, founded in the US in 1916 is another candidate for the first think tank. The term think tank itself, however, was originally used in reference to organizations that offered military advice, most notably the RAND Corporation, formed originally in 1946 as an offshoot of Douglas Aircraft and which became an independent corporation in 1948.

Until around 1970, there were no more than several dozen think tanks, mostly focused on offering non-partisan policy and military advice to the United States government, and generally with large staffs and research budgets. After 1970, the number of think tanks exploded, as many smaller new think tanks were formed to express various ideological views.

Until the 1940s, most think tanks were known only by the name of the institution. During the Second World War, think tanks were referred to as "brain boxes" after the slang term for the skull. The phrase "think tank" in wartime American slang referred to rooms in which strategists discussed war planning. The first recorded use of the phrase to refer to modern think tanks was in 1959, and by the 1960s the term was commonly used to describe RAND and other groups assisting the armed forces. In recent times, the phrase "think tank" has become applied to a wide range of institutions, and there are no precise definitions of the term. Marketing or public relations organizations, especially of an international character, sometimes refer to themselves as think tanks, for example.

Types of think tanks

Think tanks represent a variety of ideological perspectives. Some think tanks, such as the Heritage Foundation, are clearly aligned with conservative causes. Others, especially those focused on social and environmental reforms, such as the Tellus Institute, are viewed as clearly liberal. Still others, such as the Cato Institute, promote libertarian social and economic reforms.

A new trend, resulting from globalization, is collaboration between think tanks across continents. For instance, the Brookings Institution, Washington DC, collaborates with Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Qatar for an initiative on West-Islam relations. Also in the area of West-Islam relations, Strategic Foresight Group, a think tank based in India, works closely with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats in the European Parliament. The World Economic Forum has created a Council of 100 Leaders on West-Islam relations, which brings together heads of major global think tanks ranging from Oxford Islamic Centre at Oxford University to Strategic Foresight Group, Observer Research Foundation,CASS-India, CSDS, Centre for Policy Research, ETC in Delhi of India and Al-Azhar University in Egypt.

Criticism

Critics such as Ralph Nader have suggested that, because of the private nature of the funding of think tanks, their results are biased to a varying degree. Some argue members will be inclined to promote or publish only those results that ensure the continued flow of funds from private donors. This risk of distortion similarly threatens the reputation and integrity of organizations such as universities, once considered to stand wholly within the public sector.[citation needed] Defenders state that think tanks arose to challenge alleged liberal orthodoxy of the universities in place starting in the 1970s.

Some critics[who?] go further to assert think tanks are little more than propaganda tools for promoting the ideological arguments of whatever group established them. They charge that most think tanks, which are usually headquartered in state or national seats of government, exist merely for large-scale lobbying to form opinion in favor of special private interests. They give examples such as organizations calling themselves think tanks having hosted lunches for politicians to present research that critics claim is merely in the political interest of major global interests such as Microsoft, but that the connections to these interests are never disclosed. They charge, as another example, that the RAND Corporation issues research reports on national missile defense that accelerate investment into the very military products being produced by the military manufacturers who control RAND. Critics[who?] assert that the status of most think-tanks as non-profit and tax exempt makes them an even more efficient tool to put special interest money to work. The Discovery Institute has generated a great deal of controversy by injecting the controversial concept of intelligent design into public debate. [5] [6] [7]

In some cases, corporate interests have found it useful to create "think tanks" that are thinly disguised vehicles for corporate propaganda. For example, The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition was formed in the mid 1990s to dispute research finding a link between second-hand smoke and cancer. [8] According to an internal memo from Philip Morris, "the credibility of the EPA is defeatable, but not on the basis of ETS (environmental tobacco smoke) alone. It must be part of a larger mosaic that concentrates all the EPA's enemies against it at one time." [9]

Asian think tanks

Chinese think tanks

In the People's Republic of China a number of think tanks are sponsored by governmental agencies but still retain sufficient non-official status to be able to propose and debate ideas more freely. Indeed, most of the actual diplomacy between China and the United States has taken the form of academic exchanges between members of think tanks.

Hong Kong think tanks

In Hong Kong, those early think tanks established in the late 1980s and early 1990s including Hong Kong Transition Project, Hong Kong Democratic Foundation and The One Country Two Systems Research Institute focused on the political development including first direct Legislative Council members election in 1991 and the political framework of “One Country, Two Systems” manifested in the Sino-British Joint Declaration. After the return of sovereignty to the Mainland China in 1997, more and more think tanks were established by various groups of intellectuals and professionals. They have various missions and objectives including promoting civic education; undertaking research on economic social and political policies (the mission of the Civic Exchange); promoting “public understanding of and participation in the political, economic, and social development of the Hong Kong SAR” (one of the objectives of Savantas).

Iranian think tanks

Asef Think Tank, another Iranian Think Tank, is founded by Aghil Malakifar in 2004[10]. It has been offering a blend of interdisciplinary research, global focus, and accessible writing that has made it a leading source of Farsi information on the interactions among key driving forces of the future.

European think tanks

Denmark

In Denmark, the Copenhagen Institute is the first free-market think tank, founded in 2003. In 2004 high-profile representatives of Danish academia, business, media and the arts founded the free-market think tank CEPOS, which has been active in setting a new agenda in the Danish welfare debate.

France

Most known think tanks include the Montaigne Institute, the EU-centered Robert Schuman Foundation, the Concorde Foundation, the libertarian Turgot Institute, the geoeconomics-centered Institut Choiseul and the antiglobalization Copernic Foundation.

Other think tanks are more independent, such as : La Republique des Idées (close to the left), [nonfiction.fr] (think tank based on ideas, debates and nonfiction topics), terra nova (close to the socialist party, but independent).

Some of them are associated with the major political parties:


Germany

In Germany all of the major parties are loosely associated with research foundations that play some role in shaping policy, but generally from the more disinterested role of providing research to support policymakers than explicitly proposing policy. The foundations are:

The German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP) is a non-partisan foreign policy-oriented think-tank with close links to the German Foreign Office. The pro-business Initiative Neue Soziale Marktwirtschaft (INSM) is funded by the industry lobby-group Gesamtmetall. The US-based Aspen Institute has a sister organization in Berlin, committed to the promotion of transatlantic dialogue.

Greece

In Greece, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement(PASOK), is affiliated with the 'Institute of Developing Policies, Andreas Papandreou', ΙΣΤΑΜΕ.

Ireland

In Ireland, the Economic and Social Research Institute advises the government on all economic and social matter. The Institute of European Affairs is a leading contributor to European debate on climate change, security, policy and economic issues. The Iona Institute is an Irish based think tank which focuses on religion and society.

Italy

In Italy, many think tanks are described as independent, non-partisan organisations. However, there are also a number of research centres which derive funds from government contracts. The following is a partial listing of some of the most referenced Italian think tanks.

  • In the Venices (Italy), the Venezie Institute is the first Venetian free-market think tank, founded in 2005. It aims to bring about institutional, social and economic changes in the Venices (Venezie) based on the traditional Venetian principles of free enterprise, institutional integrity, limited government and individual liberty. It is completely independent of any political party, religious or economic interest group. Its motto: "Pro Bono Publico".

Netherlands

Just like in Germany, all of the major parties in the Netherlands are associated with research foundations that play a role in shaping policy.

One non-partisan, partially government-sponsored and academically independent institute with a think tank function is the Netherlands Institute for International Relations 'Clingendael'.

Poland

After the fall of the Iron Curtain, Central Europe has seen a number of new think tanks arise and some of them are already playing a role in the forming of government policy.

In Poland, there are several think tanks. The most well-known of them are:

Think tanks on economic issues:

Portugal

In Portugal, a very important think tank is Compromisso Portugal, based on neoliberal-minded entrepreneurs and academists aiming to contribute to the debate of ideas how to develop Portugal.

Compromisso Portugal is in fact not a think tank - as it is shown on its own website (consider the promoters wall are the members) - there are no permanent researchers, fellows or academics who are working in the organization. The initiative uses the motto "think tank you" as a sort of market slogan. It is comprised of people who come together for a few meetings (one main one according to the site) a year. Currently, in Portugal there are no true think tanks. Perhaps the only organization that comes close to this sort of description and has a permanent structure is Instituto de Estudos Estratégicos e Internacionais (IEEI) and deals with international and strategic policy issues.

Romania

Romanian Academic Society (SAR) is a Bucharest-based think tank and NGO founded in 1996. It is considered close to the right wing of politics.

Spain

In Spain, think tanks are progressively raising their public profile. The most influential Spanish think tank is the Elcano Royal Institute, created in 2001 following the example of the Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) in the UK, and linked to the Government in power. More independent and also influential are the CIDOB in Barcelona founded in 1973; the Juan March Institute in Madrid, created in 1986; FRIDE (Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior) established in 1999 by Diego Hidalgo and main driving force behind projects such as the Club de Madrid, a group of democratic former heads of state and government (including Clinton, Gorbachev, Cardoso or Delors) who provide counsel to governments and institutions all over the world or the Foreign Policy Spanish Edition. The Fundación Alternativas -also based in Madrid- is, for its part, close to the ruling Spanish Socialist Workers' Party). Former Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar presides over the FAES Fundacion para el Analisis y los Estudios Sociales, a think tank that is associated with the Partido Popular.

Sweden

In Sweden, the Eudoxa think tank has successfully introduced a combination between studies of free-market ideas, emerging technologies, technological and environmental foresight. Most famous among the Swedish think tanks is Timbro, a free market think tank.

Switzerland

In Switzerland, Avenir Suisse (which proposes a free-market liberalism agenda) is a think tank that is currently active. The Geneva Association (also known as the International Association for the Study of Insurance Economics) is another global think tank. Its main goal is to research the growing economic importance of insurance activities in the major sectors of the economy.

United Kingdom

In Britain, think tanks play a similar role to the United States, attempting to shape policy, and indeed there is some cooperation between British and American think tanks. Some of the major UK think tanks include RUSI, Chatham House, IISS, Policy Exchange, the Globalisation Institute, the Centre for Defence and International Security Studies, Migration Watch UK, the Institute for Public Policy Research, Demos, the Social Market Foundation, the Adam Smith Institute, the Centre for Policy Studies, the Overseas Development Institute, the Bruges Group,the Centre for European Reform, the Young Foundation, and the Henry Jackson Society.

See also: List of UK think tanks.

Brussels

A number of think tanks are based in Brussels and carry out research related to the European Union, including the Centre for European Policy Studies, founded in 1983[11] as the first EU-focused think tank and Bruegel, which is devoted to international economics and is funded by 16 EU member states and 28 private corporations,[citation needed].

The most prominent Brussels-based think-tanks are:

Middle Eastern Think Tanks

Turkey

Think tanks in Turkey are relatively new business. Many of them are sister organisations of a political party or a company. University think tanks are not typical think tanks. Turkish think tanks provide research and ideas yet they play less important roles in policy making when compared with the American think tanks. Among the most important think tanks in Turkey are the following:

  • USAK (Ankara) In English, the organization calls itself International Strategic Research Organization, ISRO. On the website, it is claimed that "ISRO is not intended to be a forum for single-issue advocacy or lobbying." It was established in 2004 and is an umbrella organization with 9 research centers. It is liberal and close to the Turkish diplomatic circles, military and political circles. Sponsored by the business community and member donations.

United Arab Emirates

Israel

United States think tanks

Think tanks in the United States play an important role in forming both foreign and domestic policy. Typically, an issue such as national missile defense will be debated within and among think tanks and the results of these debates will influence government policy makers. Think tanks in the United States generally receive funding from private donors, and members of private organizations. Think tanks may feel more free to propose and debate controversial ideas than people within government.

Although think tanks span the political spectrum, liberal critics charge that conservative think tanks are far more prevalent than their progressive counterparts. To this, conservatives respond that liberals are present in greater numbers on university faculties. In an annual survey, the liberal media watchdog group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) lists the 25 think tanks most often cited in the mainstream media. Their data for 2006 show that the most-cited think tank was the Brookings Institution, followed by the Council on Foreign Relations, the Heritage Foundation, the American Enterprise Institute, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies. Of these top five, the FAIR regards the first two as centrist and the next three as conservative. Regarding media citations of think tanks more generally, the FAIR found 45% to be centrist, 40% conservative or center-right, and 16% progressive or center-left.

Conservative

Modern neoconservatism is associated with some of the foreign policy initiatives of think tanks such as the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) and the Project for the New American Century (PNAC). The Claremont Institute and the Heritage Foundation are more traditional conservative think tanks.

Liberal

On the other side of the political spectrum are think tanks such as the Institute for Policy Studies and the Center for American Progress. Economic Policy Institute is a prominent progressive think tank whose research emphasizes interests of low-income and middle-income workers. The Roosevelt Institution is pushing the think tank model by attempting to organize university and college student bodies into effective think tanks.

Centrist

In order to retain non-profit tax-exempt status most think tanks, including those listed above as conservative or liberal, formally claim nonpartisan status. Centrist think tanks include the Atlantic Council of the United States and Center for Strategic and International Studies, non-partisan foreign policy-oriented organizations, the Institute for Collaborative Engagement, a non-partisan internationally-focused organization, and the The Lincoln Square Institute, a non-partisan presidential election forum. Other think tanks include Brookings Institution a center-left organization considered the oldest think tank in America, and the Progressive Policy Institute, a "New Democrat" organization focused on moving the Democratic party in a more centrist direction.

Libertarian

The most prominent is the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank based in Washington, DC.

Government

Government think tanks are also important in the United States, particularly in the security and defense field. These include the Institute for National Strategic Studies, Institute for Homeland Security Studies, and the Center for Technology and National Security Policy, at the National Defense University; the Center for Naval Warfare Studies at the Naval War College and the Strategic Studies Institute at the U.S. Army War College.

In addition, the government funds, wholly or in part, activities at approximately 30 Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs). FFRDCs, are unique independent nonprofit entities sponsored and funded by the U.S. government to meet specific long-term technical needs that cannot be met by any other single organization. FFRDCs typically assist government agencies with scientific research and analysis, systems development, and systems acquisition. They bring together the expertise and outlook of government, industry, and academia to solve complex technical problems.

These FFRDCs include the MITRE Corporation, the Institute for Defense Analyses, the Aerospace Corporation and others organizations supporting various departments within the U.S. Government.

Other countries

Russia

Russian think tanks have experienced a precipitous decline over the past five years. Think tanks under the Soviet Union, analogous to their American counterparts, grew to play a significant role in strategic policy formation. During the era of glasnost, begun by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and continuing under Russian President Boris Yeltsin, public think tanks and policy organizations underwent a brief blooming. However, as economic problems intensified under Yeltsin, and political pressure on public organizations grew under President Vladimir Putin, most of the Russian think tanks have withered away while those who stood closer to Kremlin saw a recent revival.

Brazil

  • Instituto Liberdade is a conservative/libertarian Brazilian Think Tank, formed by intellectual entrepreneurs and funded by private sources.
  • Institute of Applied Economic Research is a public foundation linked up to the Strategic Issues Core of the Brazilian Republic Presidency. This foundation is better known as IPEA. Its research activities are made to give technical and institutional support enhancing governmental actions.
  • VIDE - Vigilância Democrática is a conservative Brazilian Think Tank, formed by young professionals (business administrators, engineers, artists etc.) bringing the conservative agenda (defense of live, free commerce, individual liberties) to national and local discussions in Brazil.

Australia

Most Australian think tanks are based at universities - for example, the Melbourne Institute - or are government funded - for example, the Productivity Commission or the CSIRO.

There are also about 20-30 "independent" Australian think tanks, which are funded by private sources. The best-known of these are:

Think tanks play much more limited role on Australian public and business policy making than in the United States. However, in the past decade the number of think tanks has increased substantially.

New Zealand

Canada

Taiwan

South Africa

Mexico

Notes

  1. ^ see The American Heritage Dictionary. "Think Tank." 2000. and Merriam Webster's Dictionary. "Think Tank."
  2. ^ • Diane Stone ‘Think Tanks and Policy Analysis’, in Frank Fischer, Gerald J. Miller. & Mara S. Sidney (eds.) Handbook of Public Policy Analysis: Theory, Methods, and Politics, New York, Marcel Dekker Inc. 2006: 149-157
  3. ^ NIRA's World Directory of Think Tanks 2002: Introduction
  4. ^ Think tanks - SourceWatch
  5. ^ News: Discovery's Creation (Seattle Weekly)
  6. ^ Politicized Scholars Put Evolution on the Defensive - New York Times
  7. ^ Access : : Nature
  8. ^ http://www.tobaccoscam.ucsf.edu/pdf/9.6-Ong%26Glantz-JunkScience.pdf
  9. ^ How Big Tobacco Helped Create "the Junkman" | Center for Media and Democracy
  10. ^ About us - Asef think tank http://www.iranasef.org/about.asp
  11. ^ "About CEPS". Centre for European Policy Studies. 2008-02-29. Retrieved 2008-03-08.
  12. ^ The Age, April 17, 2007: ["New think tank to help swing ideas from right to left" http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/new-think-tank-to-help-swing-ideas-from-right-to-left/2007/04/05/1175366408429.html]

See also

Additional reading

  • Abelson, Donald E. Do Think Tanks Matter? Assessing the Impact of Public Policy Institutes. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002.
  • Boucher, Stephen, et al, Europe and its think tanks; a promise to be fulfilled. An analysis of think tanks specialised in European policy issues in the enlarged European Union, Studies and Research No 35, October, Paris, Notre Europe, 2004
  • Cockett, Richard, Thinking the unthinkable: think tanks and the economic counter revolution; 1931 - 1983, London: Fontana, 1995
  • Dickson, Paul. "Think Tanks". New York: Ballantine Books, 1972. 397 pages.
  • Goodman, John C. "What is a Think Tank?" National Center for Policy Analysis, 2005.[1]
  • Fan, Maureen. "Capital Brain Trust Puts Stamp on the World", Washington Post (16 May 2005): B01.[2]
  • Patrick Dixon. Futurewise - Six Faces of Global Change - issues covered by Think Tanks and methodology for reviewing trends, impact on policy 2003): Profile Books
  • Hellebust, Lynn and Kristen Hellebust, editors. Think Tank Directory: A Guide to Independent Nonprofit Public Policy Research Organizations. Topeka, Kansas: Government Research Service, 2006 (2nd edition).
  • Lakoff, George. Moral Politics: What Conservatives Know That Liberals Don't. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
  • Ladi, Stella. Globalisation, Policy Transfer And Policy Research Institutes, Edward Elgar, 2005.
  • McGann, James. The International Survey of Think Tanks. Philadelphia: FPRI, 1999.
  • McGann, James. Think Tanks and Civil Societies: Catalyst for Ideas and Action. Co-edited with Kent B.Weaver. Transaction Publishers, 2000.
  • McGann, James. Comparative Think Tanks, Politics and Public Policy. Edward Elgar, 2005.
  • McGann, James. Think Tanks and Policy Advice in the U.S: Academics, Advisors and Advocates. London: Routledge, 2007.
  • McGann, James. Think Tanks: Catalysts for Democratization and Market Reform. Forthcoming.
  • McGann, James. Global Trends and Transitions: 2007 Survey of Think Tanks. Philadelphia: FPRI, 2008.
  • McGann, James. The Global Go To Think Tanks. Philadelphia: FPRI 2008.
  • Smith, James. A. The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite, New York: The Free Press, 1991.
  • Stone, Diane. Capturing the Political Imagination: Think Tanks and the Policy Process, London: Frank Cass, 1996
  • Stone, Diane. ‘Garbage Cans, Recycling Bins or Think Tanks? Three Myths about Policy Institutes’, Public Administration, 85(2) 2007: 259-278
  • Stone, Diane, and Andrew Denham, eds. Think Tank Traditions: Policy Research and the Politics of Ideas. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004.
  • Struyk, Raymond J. Managing Think Tanks: Practical Guidance for Maturing Organizations, Budapest, Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative Washington DC., Urban Institute 2002
  • UNDP – United Nations Development Program. Thinking the Unthinkable, Bratislava, UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 2003
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