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Repressed memory

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Template:Totallydisputed Repressed memory is a highly controversial theory regarding a significant memory, usually of a traumatic nature, that has become unavailable for recall. The term is used to describe memories that have been dissociated from awareness as well as those that have been repressed without dissociation. The existence of repressed memories is not accepted by mainstream psychology. A recent amicus curiae brief to the California Supreme Court drafted by psychologist/attorney R. C. Barden and signed by nearly 100 international experts in the field of human memory emphasized there is "no credible scientific support" for the controversial notions of repressed and recovered memories. The experts summarized the opinion of the relevant scientific community by stating "Decades of research and scientific debate have clarified over and over again, that the notion of traumatic events being somehow “repressed” and later accurately recovered is one of the most pernicious bits of folklore ever to infect psychology and psychiatry. " See, Barden, R. C. Amicus Brief in Taus v. Loftus, Supreme Court of California, Feb. 21, 2006. A small band of clinicians continue to argue for the credibility of "repressed memories" but most all of the proponents of this theory suffered license revocations, licensing disciplinary actions, or malpractice lawsuits.

Most commentators agree that the most significant recovered memory lawsuit was the Illinois case of Burgus v. Braun resulting in a world record 10.6 Million dollar settlement. This case is often noted as the end of the repressed memory movement in the U.S. Reported on page one, column one of the NY Times the Burgus case galvanized opposition to recovered memory practices. As quoted in the New York Times page one article on the Burgus settlement, The next thing I think there will be is legislation to require informed consent from psychiatric patients for such [recovered memory] 'treatments', said Dr. R. Christopher Barden, a psychologist and lawyer [for the plaintiff Burgus]... I think insurance companies will stop reimbursing people for mental health treatments that are not proven safe and effective. This is the death knell for recovered memory therapy. See, Belluck, P. Recovered Memory Therapy Leads to a Lawsuit and Big Settlement [$10.6 Million], The New York Times, Page 1, Column 1, Nov. 6, 1997; See also, Belluck, P. She Recovered Memories, Then Millions in Damages, The New York Times, Nov 9, 1997, Sec. 4, Week in Review, page 2, Column 3.

History

The concept was originated by Sigmund Freud in his 1896 essay Zur Ätiologie der Hysterie ("On the etiology of hysteria"). Freud abandoned his theory between 1897 and 1905, replacing it during 1920-1923 with his impulse-based concept of Id, Super-ego, and Ego. Friedrich Nietzsche was the first to suggest an active, conscious thought management method in the second essay of his On the Genealogy of Morals as a necessary fundament of efficiency, responsibility, and maturity. Also called motivated forgetting in which a subject blocks out painful or traumatic times in one's life.

Research

Repressed memory syndrome, the clinical entity used to describe repressed memories, is often compared to psychogenic amnesia, and some sources compare the two as equivalent.[1][2] Some research indicates that memories of child sexual abuse and other traumatic incidents can be forgotten.[3][4][5][6] Evidence of the spontaneous recovery of traumatic memories has been shown,[7][8][9] and recovered memories of traumatic childhood abuse have been corroborated.[10][11][12][6][13] Although the science of repressed memory is limited, a few studies have suggested that memories of trauma that are forgotten and later recalled have a similar accuracy rate as trauma memories that had not been forgotten.[1] It has been speculated that repression may be one method used by individuals to cope with traumatic memories, by pushing them out of awareness[5] (perhaps as an adaptation via psychogenic amnesia) to allow a child to maintain attachment to a person on whom they are dependent for survival.[14] Researchers have proposed that repression can operate on a social level as well.[15]

The existence of repressed memories has not been completely accepted by mainstream psychology,[16][17][18][19] nor unequivocally proven to exist, and some experts in the field of human memory feel that no credible scientific support exists for the notions of repressed/recovered memories.[20] One research report states that a distinction should be made between spontaneously recovered memories and memories recovered during suggestions in therapy. [21]

van der Kolk and Fisler's research shows that traumatic memories are retrieved, at least at first, in the form of mental imprints that are dissociated. These imprints are of the affective and sensory elements of the traumatic experience. Clients have reported the slow emergence of a personal narrative that can be considered explicit (conscious) memory. The level of emotional significance of a memory correlates directly with the memory's veracity. Studies of subjective reports of memory show that memories of highly significant events are unusually accurate and stable over time. The imprints of traumatic experiences appear to be qualitatively different from those of nontraumatic events. Traumatic memories may be coded differently than ordinary event memories, possibly because of alterations in attentional focusing or the fact that extreme emotional arousal interferes with the memory functions of the hippocampus.[22]

Some criminal cases have been based on a witness' testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some jurisdictions, the statute of limitations for child abuse cases has been extended to accommodate the phenomena of repressed memories as well as other factors. The repressed memory concept came into wider public awareness in the 1980s and 1990s followed by a reduction of public attention after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.[23]

In a 1996 ruling, a US District Court allowed repressed memories entered into evidence in court cases.[24] Jennifer Freyd writes that Ross Cheit's case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.[9]

Recovered memory therapy

Main article: Recovered memory therapy

Recovered memory therapy (RMT) is a term coined by affiliates of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation[25][26][27] referring to what they described as a range of psychotherapy methods based on recalling memories of abuse that had previously been forgotten by the patient.[28]The term is not listed in DSM-IV or used by mainstream formal psychotherapy modality.[25] The hypothesis that therapy can create false memories through suggestion techniques is controversial and has been neither proven nor disproven; some research has shown evidence supporting the hypothesis; and, the evidence is questioned by some researchers.[29] [25][30] Even when patients who decide their recovered memories are false and retract their claims, they can suffer posttraumatic stress disorder due to the trauma of illusory memories.[31] The number of reported retractions is small when compared to the large number of actual child sexual abuse cases.[32] Some have suggested that a child may retract their story of abuse due to guilt, a feeling of obligation to protect their family or may be reacting to the familial stress brought on by their allegations.[33]

Repressed memories were a frequent topic among talk-show hosts in the 1990s and have frequently been portrayed in popular entertainment, especially as a plot device.

  • The film Tommy: the title character is coerced into forgetting that he has witnessed the killing of his father.
  • The film The Machinist: Christian Bale's character represses the memory of killing a child in a hit-and-run car accident.
  • The film Nurse Betty: Betty also witnesses a murder and as a result of the trauma forgets her entire reality for a time, deluded into being a character in her favourite soap opera.
  • The film The Butterfly Effect: Evan has blackouts throughout his childhood when in traumatic situations. As a college student, he attempts to recover these memories and finds that he can change the past.
  • The film Spellbound: a horrible childhood memory has been suppressed and causes nightmares for years afterwards.
  • The film Mysterious Skin: two teenage boys repress memories of sexual abuse by their Little League coach.
  • The video game Final Fantasy VII: the protagonist Cloud Strife carries false memories of his service in SOLDIER, the real memories suppressed after his Mako treatment.
  • The anime/manga Elfen Lied: one of the main characters, Kouta, suppressed the majority of his childhood after seeing his father and his little sister being murdered.
  • The anime/manga Fruits Basket: the supporting character, Hatori Sohma had to suppress the memories of his love, Kana, after Akito Sohma blinded Hatori's left eye by throwing a vase at him and blamed Hatori's injury on Kana. The guilt from the accident drove her into madness and Hatori was forced to suppress her memories so that she could once again smile. Hatori has also had to suppress the memories of Yuki Sohma's friends, and Momiji Sohma's mother.
  • The anime/manga His and Her Circumstances: When Arima visits his girlfriend, Yukino's house for the first time he realizes he doesn't have a deep bond with his adoptive parents and is confronted with repressed memories of abuse and abandonment from his real parents.
  • The novel The Perks of Being a Wallflower: Charlie is confronted with repressed memories of being sexually abused by his aunt in the end of the novel after being upset and confused by sexual contact with his crush/friend, Sam.
  • The protagonist of the video game Silent Hill 2, James Sunderland, repressed his memory of murdering his wife prior to the game's events.
  • In the movie Total Recall, set in the year 2084, a man travels to Mars for a virtual vacation that implants memories of the trip in his mind, to recall those memories in exact detail. During his trip he recalls the truth about himself.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Scheflin, A (1999-11-01). "Ground lost: The false memory/recovered memory therapy debate". Psychiatric Times. 16 (11).
  2. ^ Fink, P (2005). "Press Release by the Leadership Council: Recovered Memories: True or False?". The Leadership Council. Retrieved 2008-02-06.
  3. ^ Williams LM (1994). "Recall of childhood trauma: a prospective study of women's memories of child sexual abuse". J Consult Clin Psychol. 62 (6): 1167–76. PMID 7860814.
  4. ^ Cheit, RE (2005-07-01). "The Archive: 101 Corroborated Cases of Recovered Memory". The Recovered Memory Project. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
  5. ^ a b "Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory". The Leadership Council. 2005. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
  6. ^ a b Bowman, E.S. (1996). "Delayed memories of child abuse: Part I: An overview of research findings on forgetting, remembering, and corroborating trauma". Dissociation. 9: 221–231.; lay summary "Corroboration of child abuse memories". About.com. 2006-02-20. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
  7. ^ Chu, J (1999). "Memories of childhood abuse: dissociation, amnesia, and corroboration". American Journal of Psychiatry. 156 (5): 749–55. PMID 10327909. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ^ Duggal, S. (1998). "Recovered memory of childhood sexual trauma: A documented case from a longitudinal study". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 11 (2): 301–321. doi:10.1023/A:1024403220769. Retrieved 2007-12-31. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b Freyd, Jennifer J. (1996). Betrayal Trauma - The Logic of Forgetting Childhood Abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-06805-x. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  10. ^ Cheit, Ross E. (1998). "Consider This, Skeptics of Recovered Memory". ETHICS & BEHAVIOR. 8 (2): 141–160. doi:10.1207/s15327019eb0802_4. Retrieved 2007-12-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  11. ^ Corwin, D. (1997). "Videotaped Discovery of a Reportedly Unrecallable Memory of Child Sexual Abuse: Comparison with a Childhood Interview Videotaped 11 Years Before". Child Maltreatment. 2 (2): 91–112. doi:10.1177/1077559597002002001. Retrieved 2008-01-09. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Leadership Council on Child Abuse & Interpersonal Violence: Summary of Research Examining the Prevalence of Full or Partial Dissociative Amnesia for Traumatic Events
  13. ^ Template:Cite article
  14. ^ Freyd, J. (1994). "Betrayal trauma: traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse" (PDF). Ethics & Behavior. 4 (4): 307–330. doi:10.1207/s15327019eb0404_1. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
  15. ^ Freyd, Jennifer J. (2007). "Archiving Dissociation as a Precaution Against Dissociating Dissociation" (PDF). Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. 8 (3). Retrieved 2007-12-29.
  16. ^ McNally, R.J. (2004). "The Science and Folklore of Traumatic Amnesia". Clinical Psychology Science and Practice. 11 (1): 29–33. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph056. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ McNally RJ (2007). "Dispelling confusion about traumatic dissociative amnesia". Mayo Clin. Proc. 82 (9): 1083–90. PMID 17803876.
  18. ^ McNally RJ (2004). "Is traumatic amnesia nothing but psychiatric folklore?". Cogn Behav Ther. 33 (2): 97–101, discussion 102–4, 109–11. PMID 15279316.
  19. ^ McNally RJ (2005). "Debunking myths about trauma and memory". Can J Psychiatry. 50 (13): 817–22. PMID 16483114.
  20. ^ Amicus Curiae brief in Taus v. Loftus (Superme Court of California 2006-02-21).
  21. ^ Geraerts, E. (2007). "The Reality of Recovered Memories: Corroborating Continuous and Discontinuous Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse" (PDF). Psychological Science. 18 (7): 564–568. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01940.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ van der Kolk BA, Fisler R (1995). "Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: overview and exploratory study". J Trauma Stress. 8 (4): 505–25. PMID 8564271. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
  23. ^ Robbins Susan P., The Social and Cultural Context of Satanic Ritual Abuse Allegations, published in Institute for Psychological Therapies magazine, vol 10 1998.[1]
  24. ^ 923 Federal Supplement 286 (D. Mass. 1996); CIVIL ACTION NO.: 92-12139-EFH MEMORANDUM AND ORDER; May 8, 1996
  25. ^ a b c Whitfield, Charles L. (2001). Misinformation Concerning Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Survivors. Haworth Press. pp. p56. ISBN 0789019019. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ Salter, Stephanie (1993-04-07). "Feminist Treason and Intellectual Fascism" (reprint). San Francisco Examiner. Retrieved 2007-12-15.
  27. ^ Underwager, Ralph (1994). Return of the Furies: An Investigation into Recovered Memory Therapy. Open Court Pub Co. p. 360. ISBN 978-0812692716. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |Month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Lief, Harold I (1999). "Patients Versus Therapists: Legal Actions Over Recovered Memory Therapy". Psychiatric Times. XVI (11). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  29. ^ Hammond, D. Corydon; Brown, Daniel P.; Scheflin, Alan W. (1998). Memory, trauma treatment, and the law. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-70254-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Brandon S, Boakes J, Glaser D, Green R (1998). "Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Implications for clinical practice". Br J Psychiatry. 172: 296–307. PMID 9722329.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Lambert, K (2007-10-01). "Brain Stains". Scientific American. Retrieved 2008-01-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Whitfield M.D., Charles L. (1995). Memory and Abuse - Remembering and Healing the Effects of Trauma. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc. p. 375. ISBN 1-55874-320-0.
  33. ^ Summit, R. (1983). "The child sexual abuse accommodation syndrome". Child Abuse & Neglect. 7: 177–193. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(83)90070-4. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
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