City-state

A city-state is a region controlled exclusively by a city, usually having sovereignty. Historically, city-states have often been contingent of larger cultural areas, as in the city-states of ancient Greece (such as Athens, Sparta and Corinth), the Phoenician cities of Canaan (such as Tyre and Sidon), the Mayans of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (including sites such as Chichen Itza and El Mirador), the central Asian cities along the Silk Road (which includes Samarkand and Bukhara), or the city-states of Northern Italy (especially Florence and Venice). More recently the neologism citistate has been developed, referring to the city as the center of a 'city region' including relocated urban business like factory and company towns, and supply economies like agricultural, timber and mineral extraction whose commodities find a market in the city. The term "city-state" should not be confused with "independent city", which refers to a city which is not administered as part of another local government area (eg, a county).

Among the most well known periods of city-state culture in human history include ancient Greek city-states, and the merchant city-states of Renaissance Italy, who organized themselves in small independent centers. The success of small regional units coexisting as autonomous actors in loose geographical and cultural unity, as in Italy or Greece, often prevented their amalgamation into larger national units. However, such small political entities often survived only for short periods because they lacked the resources to defend themselves against incursions by larger states. Thus they inevitably gave way to larger organizations of society, including the empire and the nation-state.

Whereas the nation-states rely on a common cultural heritage, be it linguistic, historical, religious, economic, etc., the city-state relies on the common interest in the function of the urban center. The urban center and its activity supplies the livelihoods of all urbanites inhabiting the city-state.

Today, Singapore, Monaco and the Vatican City are the only sovereign states which bear a resemblance to the classical definition of a city-state. Several sovereign countries do have self-governing areas delineated around cities, but these are not true city-states because they are not independent of the larger state. Typically a nation will have a federal administration from which the capital is granted a separate status. Examples include Washington (coterminous with the District of Columbia) in the United States, Brasília (coterminous with the Brazilian Federal District) in Brazil, Mexico City (being the Mexican Federal District) and Canberra (part of the Australian Capital Territory).

In nations without a federal administrative structure, capital cities sometimes enjoy a greater degree of autonomy, e.g. London. In Germany, Berlin has been a federal state (Land) of its own since 1990, but, unlike the above, remains inside the general administration of the country. (Note but this has nothing to do with its being the capital; the cities of Hamburg and Bremen have an identical status and look back on a much longer history of political independence.) A similar situation can be found in Austria, where the capital Vienna has the status of a state within the Austrian federation of states.

Yet another case is the Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China; Hong Kong and Macau. Neither capitals nor exclusively cities, their temporary, relative political independence results from agreements between China and the colonial powers that formerly controlled them.

Ancient city-states

City-states were common throughout ancient history. They usually consisted of groups of interacting polities whose populations shared a common language and culture. Mogens Herman Hansen calls these groups "city-state cultures." Though sovereign, in many cases city-states joined in formal or informal leagues under a high king. In some cases, historical empires or leagues were formed by the right of conquest (e.g., Mycenae, or Rome), but many were formed under peaceful alliances or for mutual protection, as in the Peloponnesian League.

However, city-state cultures were far from universal in the ancient world. In some regions, such as the ancient Andes, large territorial states, empires, and other forms of polity were common but city-state cultures did not develop.. Archaeologist Bruce Trigger identified city-states as one of two basic forms of political organization among ancient civilizations; the other form being the large territorial state.

Examples of city-states and city-state cultures include:

• Cities of the Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, such as Sumer and Assyria, the Levant including Jericho, and Anatolian civilizations, such as the Hittites, Mitanni and most famously, Troy.
• The poleis of Ancient Greece
• Ancient Rome
• Ancient American cultures, such as the Aztec and the Maya
• Phoenician cities (incl. Byblos (believed to be the first city ever built), and Carthage)
• The West African Yoruba city states of Eko (now Lagos) and Ibadan.
• The city-states of the Shang and Zhou dynasties of China.

The Medieval and early-modern eras

In the Middle Ages, city-states were a particular feature of what are now Germany, Italy and Russia. A number of northern cities formed the Hanseatic League an economic union centered on the Baltic and North seas. The League was a significant force in trade from the 13th to the 17th centuries.

The Holy Roman Empire

For further details, see under: Imperial Free City.

During the long history of the Holy Roman Empire, dozens of towns and cities obtained local independence. By the late 18th century, their number had slowly been reduced to around 50, but almost all were incorporated into larger polities during the German Mediatization in 1803. By 1815, once peace had returned at the end of the Napoleonic era, only Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck and Frankfurt remained independent. Those four cities became members of the German Confederation (effectively the Holy Roman Empire's successor). Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia in 1866, while Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen joined the North German Confederation in 1867, which was later incorporated into the German Empire. Hamburg and Bremen have continued until today as states in the modern Federal Republic of Germany, while Lübeck lost its independence in 1937 by the Greater Hamburg Act.

Netherlands

In the time of the Dutch Golden Age of the Seventeenth Century, many Dutch cities - and especially Amsterdam, the biggest and richest of them - exhibited many of the characteristics of city-states, maintaining their own militias and navies and often conducting their own policies and pursuing specific political and commercial interests, with little regard for the rest of the Netherlands.

This was exemplified in the Amsterdam Town Hall erected at the time on the Dam Square, which was sumptuous enough to be later converted into a Royal Palace (which it still is), and having among its decorations a giant painting of Imperial Amsterdam depicted as an enthroned Queen, served by three female slaves representing Asia, Africa and America.

The recent past

In the 19th and 20th centuries, a variety of changing political circumstances left several self-governing city-states as enclaves surrounded by the territory of another state. In Europe, they have included Kraków, Fiume, Danzig, Memel and Trieste. On the edges of Europe they have included Batumi and Tangiers. Elsewhere in the world, European colonialism resulted in a number of tiny colonies that were no bigger than a port and its immediate surroundings, such as Hong Kong, Macau, Pondicherry, Singapore, Weihai, and others.

Contemporary city-states

Today there are only a handful of cities which exercise authority akin to a sub-regional state (like Berlin,Macau or Washington DC), and even fewer which are sovereign states in their own right (like Singapore or Monaco).

Sovereign city-states

Monaco

The Principality of Monaco is another example of a city-state: Monaco-Ville (the ancient fortified city, which is not a city even though its name means "Monaco-City") and the well known area Monte Carlo are actually districts, not cities. The territory of the country corresponds to the city limits (one government and one town hall, each having specific powers): the Principality of Monaco and the city of Monaco. However, due to its small land area and population size, Monaco is not a fully sovereign state. In July 1918, a treaty was signed providing for limited French protection over Monaco. The treaty, part of the Treaty of Versailles, established that Monegasque policy would be aligned with French political, military, and economic interests. Only in 1993 did Monaco become a member of the United Nations, with full voting rights. In 2002, a new treaty between France and Monaco clarifies that if there are no heirs to carry on the dynasty, the principality will remain an independent nation rather than revert to France (which were the terms of the previous arrangement). Monaco's military defense, however, is still the responsibility of France. Monaco did not receive its first foreign ambassador, the French ambassador, until 16 February 2006. While Monaco cannot now be disputed to be a sovereign state in a de jure sense, its dependency on France means it can be regarded as a European microstate.

Singapore

Singapore is an island city-state in Southeast Asia. About 4.5 million people live and work within 700 square kilometers, making Singapore the third most densely populated country in the world. The entire island functions as a single metropolitan area. The city centre in the south of the island is surrounded by satellite towns, parks, reservoirs and industrial estates, which are connected to the centre and each other by a dense network of roads, expressways and metro railway lines. Singapore has a highly centralised, unitary government with a unicameral legislature. While there are town councils and mayors in Singapore, these are essentially property managers in charge of the maintenance of public housing within their constituency boundaries. They do not represent local authorities with any legislative or executive autonomy from the national government.

Prior to the 19th century, Singapore was a minor part of various regional empires, including Srivijaya, Majapahit, Malacca and Johor. From 1826 to the Japanese conquest, Singapore was the capital of the Straits Settlements, a British colony that included the Settlements of Malacca and Penang along the Straits of Malacca. After the Second World War, Singapore was hived off as a separate colony while the other two Settlements joined the Malay States to form the Federation of Malaya. In 1963, Singapore merged with Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak to form Malaysia. However, due to a number of problems, Singapore left the federation in 1965, becoming an independent republic.

Since 1965, Singapore rapidly industrialised and modernised, becoming one of the four "Asian Tigers". In addition to the substantial absolute and per-capita size of its economy, Singapore maintains a significant armed force. It ranks highly in terms of defence spending and troop size. Singapore may be a small country, but it is a medium to large sized developed city. Despite its small land area, Singapore has a population, economy and armed forces that place it in a similar league to small but full fledged nations like New Zealand, Ireland, Israel and the Nordic countries, rather than semi-independent micro-states. Singapore also maintains diplomatic representation around the world, including membership of international organizations like the UN, the Commonwealth and ASEAN. Singapore places emphasis on self-sufficiency in basic needs, like water. The government also stockpiles other key resources, such as sand and oil. In this way, Singapore tries to avoid overdependence economically, politically or militarily on larger entities. As such, Singapore may represent the most complete contemporary example of a city-state, meeting the full definitions of both a city and a fully sovereign state.

Vatican City

Until 1870, the city of Rome had been controlled by the pope as part of his "papal states". When King Victor Emmanuel II annexed the city in 1870, Pope Pius IX refused to recognize the newly-formed Kingdom of Italy. Because he could not travel through a place that he did not admit existed, Pius IX and his successors each claimed to be a "Prisoner in the Vatican", unable to leave the 0.44 km² (0.17-square mile) papal enclave once they had ascended the papal throne.

The impasse was resolved in 1929 by the Lateran Treaties negotiated by the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini between King Victor Emmanuel III and Pope Pius XI. Under this treaty, the Vatican was recognized as an independent state, with the pope as its head. The Vatican City State has its own citizenship, diplomatic corps, flag, and postal system. With a population of less than 1000, it is by far the smallest sovereign country in the world, and widely recognized internationally as such.

Non-sovereign city states

City of London

See also: City of London Corporation

Although the City of London is not commonly considered a city-state, it does have a unique political status (sui generis), a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo Saxon period and its singular relationship with the Crown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Reform Act 1835.

It is administered by the City of London Corporation, headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London (not the same post as the more recent Mayor of London, who presides over Greater London). The City is a ceremonial county too, although instead of having its own Lord-Lieutenant, the City of London has a Commission, headed by the Lord Mayor, exercising this function.

Washington, D.C.

See also: District of Columbia home rule

The John A. Wilson Building houses the offices of the mayor and council of the District of Columbia.

Not being part of any U.S. state, Washington, D.C.'s government operates under authority derived from the U.S. federal government. The city is run by an elected mayor (Adrian Fenty) and a city council. The council is composed of 13 members: one elected from each of the eight wards and five members, including the chairman, elected at large. The council conducts its work through standing committees and special committees established as needed. District schools are administered by a chancellor, who is appointed by the mayor; in addition, a Superintendent of Education and a Board of Education are responsible for setting some educational policies. There are 37 elected Advisory Neighborhood Commissions that provide the most direct access for residents to their local government. The commissions are elected by small neighborhood districts, and their suggestions are required to be given "great weight" by the D.C. Council and city agencies. However, the U.S. Congress has the ultimate plenary power over the district. It has the right to review and overrule laws created locally and has often done so. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which grants to states all rights not belonging to the federal government, does not apply to the District of Columbia.

D.C. residents pay federal taxes, such as income tax, as well as local taxes. The mayor and council adopt a budget, which Congress has the right to change. Much property in the District (an estimated 41 percent) is owned by the Federal government, foreign governments, or tax-exempt organizations and hence is exempt from local property taxes. In addition, attempts by the District government to impose an income tax on suburban commuters who work in the city have been disallowed by Congress. The city, however, does receive about 25 percent of its budget from the federal government, part of which is to pay for "state"-level costs that cities normally do not bear and part of which are categorical grants (Medicaid, for example) that also go to all states.

Other examples

As well as the above sovereign states, the term "city-state" can also refer to states within federations such as the German states of Berlin, Hamburg and, though consisting of two separate cities, Bremen; the Austrian state of Vienna; the Russian cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg; the Ethiopian chartered cities (astedader akababiwach) of Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa; and the Spanish ciudades autónomas of Ceuta and Melilla. Constitutionally, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar is a city. Buenos Aires is also an Autonomous City, not belonging to any province and actually self-governed, with its own status roughly similar to that of Washington D.C. in the USA.

In China, the term is sometimes used for the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau, due to their long histories as colonies of the British and Portuguese respectively; while neither are legally defined as cities, they enjoy an equivalent status to a province within China, with a high degree of autonomy.

Countries that have a very high proportion of their population within a single city, such as Kuwait and Djibouti, are sometimes referred to as virtual or near city-states, especially when they are relatively small in total land area; however, city-states are not small nation-states. Likewise, cities with their own quasi-sovereign states in larger nations or federations, like Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, do not technically qualify as city-states.

See also

• State
• Nation-state
• Microstate
• Colonies in antiquity
• List of fictional city-states