Jump to content

Transcendental Meditation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Kodoz (talk | contribs) at 17:49, 29 August 2008 (→Effects on the physiology). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Transcendental Meditation, or TM, is the trademarked name of a meditation technique introduced in 1958 by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1917-2008). The technique, practiced for twenty minutes twice a day while sitting with one's eyes closed,[1] does not involve concentration or contemplation.[2]

Procedure and goal

The technique is taught to new practitioners in a standardized, seven-step procedure, consisting of two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and a two-hour instruction session given on each of four consecutive days. Instruction begins with a short ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student learns the technique and begins practicing. Subsequent sessions provide further clarification of correct practice, as well as more information about the technique.[3][4]

Origin

In 1955, the Indian ascetic [5] Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (born Mahesh Prasad Varma) began teaching a meditation technique he says was derived from the Vedic tradition[1]; he gave this method the name Transcendental Meditation.

Prior to this, Maharishi had studied with Swami Brahmananda Saraswati, serving as his secretary from 1941 until Brahmananda Saraswati's death in 1953. In 1957, Maharishi began the Spiritual Regeneration Movement in Madras, India, on the concluding day of a festival held in remembrance of his deceased teacher. In 1958 he began the first of a number of worldwide tours promoting and disseminating his technique.

In the early 1970s, Maharishi undertook to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the world's population, which at that time would have meant 3,600 Transcendental Meditation centers throughout the world. In 1990, Maharishi began the coordination of the teaching of the Transcendental Meditation technique from the town of Vlodrop, the Netherlands, through an organization he called the Global Country of World Peace. This group reports that more than 6 million people worldwide have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique since its introduction.[6]

Research

Effects on the physiology

Research studies have described specific physiological effects that occur during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. The first of these studies was published in the early 1970s in Science,[7] American Journal of Physiology,[8] and Scientific American (a non-peer-reviewed popular publication).[9]. Of note, however, is that this research was conducted by the same individual (RK Wallace), and attempts at verification by independent groups led to 2 subsequent studies in Science; these studies failed to find differences between hypometabolic and resting states. No studies have since been published in Science. [Commercial supporters of TM continue to use the Science publications to lend credibility to their claims without actually including these 3 publications in their bibliographies (compare this list of journals with this bibliography.)] The lack of independent validation of the physiological effects of TM continues to be a hindrance to research in this field, as concluded by Ernst and Cantor in a 2004 systematic review in J Hypertens. Here, the authors find that studies demonstrating an effect of TM on blood pressure suffer from methodological flaws (in a field with well-established protocols for clinical trials) and potential bias because of authors' associations with TM organizations.ref Of the 15 randomized controlled trials published since this review, 10 have one (and often more) authors in common: RH Schneider, who has a commercial interest in TM, CN Alexander, DW Orme-Johnson, FA Treiber, SI Nidich, M Rainforth, J Salerno, and/or VA Barnes.

This research found that the Transcendental Meditation technique produced a physiological state that was termed "restful alertness." During the practice of the technique the physiology becomes relaxed, as indicated by significant reductions in respiration, minute ventilation, tidal volume, blood lactate, and significant increases in basal skin resistance, yet EEG measurements showed increased coherence and integration of brain functioning,[10] indicating that the physiology was alert rather than asleep.[11]

Studies suggest that this state of physiology promotes regulation of cortisol and other hormones associated with chronic stress and a healthier regulation of serotonin (a neurotransmitter associated with mood).[12]

Range of studies

Studies have reported finding a positive correlation between the Transcendental Meditation technique and various health-related conditions, including reduction of high blood pressure,[13] younger biological age,[14] decreased insomnia,[15] reduction of high cholesterol,[16] reduced illness and medical expenditures,[17] decreased outpatient visits,[18] decreased cigarette smoking,[19] decreased alcohol use,[20]. and decreased anxiety.[21].

Research funding from the NIH

As of 2004, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) had spent more than $20 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease[2]. In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.[22]

The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on October 11, 1999, at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.[23]

Research in medical journals

A paper published in 1977 in The Lancet indicated that the Transcendental Meditation technique had no effect on blood pressure in patients.[24]

In 2005, the American Journal of Cardiology published a review of two studies that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure.[25] This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. The review was funded in part by a grant from NIH's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Also in 2005, the American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of hypertension among African-Americans.[26]

In 2006, a study published in the American Medical Association's Archives of Internal Medicine found that coronary heart disease patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education.[27]

The American Heart Association has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 2000, the association's journal, Stroke, published a study that found that, on average, the hypertensive, adult subjects who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique daily experienced reduced thickening of coronary arteries, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.[28]The association's journal Hypertension published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had reduced blood pressure.[29]

Also in 2006, a functional MRI study of 24 patients published in NeuroReport found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the brain's response to pain.[30]

A meta-analysis, conducted at the University of Kentucky, found Transcendental Meditation was associated with approximate reductions of 4.7 mm Hg systolic blood pressure and 3.2 mm Hg diastolic blood pressure. The study was published in the March, 2008, issue of the American Journal of Hypertension.[31]

Research on cognitive function

A paper published in the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1978 found no effect on school grades.[32] A 1985 study in the British Journal of Educational Psychology, and a 1989 study in Education showed improved academic performance.[33] [34]

A paper published in 2001 in the journal, Intelligence, reported the effects on 362 Taiwanese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping, on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.[35]

In 2003 a study in the journal, Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, reviewed ten randomized, controlled trials that looked at the effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique on cognitive function. Four trials showed a significant effect on cognitive function, while the remaining trials showed mixed results. Study authors, Canter and Ernst, noted that the four positive trials used subjects who had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique, and attributed the significant positive results to an expectation effect.[36] Orme-Johnson, co-author of one of these trials, has critiqued this study, noting errors and omissions.[37]

A 1971 survey by Leon Otis found that a significant percentage of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique also report feeling anxiety, confusion, and depression.[38] A study in the American Journal of Managed Care indicates that there are no known side effects associated with the Transcendental Meditation technique.[39]

David Lynch Foundation

Filmmaker David Lynch, a longtime practitioner of Transcendental Meditation, has set up a foundation to facilitate the use of the technique in schools. He says that this will increase academic performance and reduce the stress experienced by pupils.[40]

Controversies

Relationship to religion and spirituality

Official Transcendental Meditation websites state that the Transcendental Meditation technique is a mental technique for deep rest that is associated with specific effects on mind and body. These sites state that the Transcendental Meditation technique does not require faith, belief, or a change in lifestyle to be effective as a relaxation technique. [3]

Clergy have varying views when assessing the compatibility of the Transcendental Meditation technique with their religions. For example, Jaime Cardinal Sin, then Archbishop of Manila, said that some concepts taught by Maharishi conflict with Christianity. [4] Other clergy have found the Transcendental Meditation technique to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs. [41] [42] [43]

Maharishi has called the Transcendental Meditation technique "a path to God", [44] and describes himself as a spiritual teacher.[citation needed] The Transcendental Meditation technique, yoga, and other forms of meditation have been described as "spiritual" but not religious, and as coping strategies for life. [45]

In 1979 the Third Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, which included the Transcendental Meditation technique, could not be taught in New Jersey public schools because it violated the Establishment Clause [46] of the First Amendment. [47] [48] The court ruled that although Transcendental Meditation/Science of Creative Intelligence is not a theistic religion it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. Because the ruling centered around a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, and because the Wallace v. Jaffree decision in 1986 allows for quiet time/meditation with a secular purpose, instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique has continued in public charter schools, despite comments like those of sociologist Barry Markovsky, who felt that teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in the schools is “stealth religion." [49]

Cult issues

In 1987, the Cult Awareness Network (CAN) held a press conference and demonstration in Washington, D.C., saying that the Transcendental Meditation technique “seeks to strip individuals of their ability to think and choose freely.” Steve Hassan, author of several books on cults, and at one time a CAN deprogrammer, said in the same press conference that those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique display cult-like behaviors.[50] These cult-like tendencies were described in Michael A. Persinger's book, TM and Cult Mania, published in 1980.[51]

David Orme-Johnson, former faculty member at Maharishi University of Management (at which all students and faculty practice the Transcendental Meditation technique daily) who has researched the Transcendental Meditation technique and the paranormal Maharishi Effect, cites studies by Schecter[52], Alexander [53], and Pelletier[54] showing greater autonomy, innovative thought, and increases in creativity, general intelligence and moral reasoning in those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique. According to Orme–Johnson cult followers operate on blind faith and adherence to arbitrary rules and authority, and these studies indicate the ability of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique to make mature, independent, principle-based judgments. [5]

Lawsuits

Kropinski v. WPEC

In a civil suit against the World Plan Executive Council filed in 1985,[55] Robert Kropinski claimed fraud, psychological, physical, and emotional harm as a result of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. The district court dismissed Kropinski's claims concerning intentional tort and negligent infliction of emotional distress, and referred the claims of fraud and negligent infliction of physical and psychological injuries to a jury trial. The jury awarded Robert Kropinski $137,890 in the fraud and negligence claims. The appellate court overturned the award and dismissed Kropinski's claim alleging psychological damage. The claim of fraud and the claim of a physical injury related to his practice of the TM-Sidhi program were remanded to the lower court for retrial, and the parties then settled these remaining claims out of court.[56]

Butler/Killian vs. MUM

Two lawsuits were filed as a result of a stabbing at Maharishi University of Management in Fairfield, Iowa on March 1, 2004[57] The families of the murdered student and a student who was assaulted earlier in the day have sued MUM and the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation. Their separate suits, filed on February 24, 2006, allege that the twice-daily practice of Transcendental Meditation, which the university requires of all students, can be dangerous for people with psychiatric problems. They also charge the university with failing to call the police or take action to protect students from a violent, mentally ill student.[58][59]

Issue of cost

In 2008, fees for learning the Transcendental Meditation technique were changed. Fee for a single person is now $2,000 rather than $2,500. In response to what they feel is a high course fee to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique, some former teachers offer instruction independently. [60] while other former teachers have published what they claim to be the mantras used in the practice. The organization that teaches the Transcendental Meditation technique recommends that it be learned from an authorized teacher only. [61]

References

  1. ^ The Transcendental Meditation Program
  2. ^ Shear, Jonathan (2006). The Experience of Meditation, 25, 30-32, 43-44
  3. ^ The Seven-Step Course
  4. ^ 7 Steps to Learn the TM
  5. ^ Coplin, J.R. (1990)Text and Context in the Communication of a Social Movement's Charisma, Ideology, and Consciousness: TM for India and the West. University of California, San Diego, p. 64
  6. ^ The Transcendental Meditation Program
  7. ^ Wallace RK. Physiological effects of Transcendental Meditation. Science 1970;167:1751–1754
  8. ^ Wallace RK. The Physiology of Meditation. Scientific American 1972;226:84-90
  9. ^ Wallace RK, Benson H, Wilson AF. A wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state. American Journal of Physiology 1971;221:795-799
  10. ^ Dillbeck, M.C. and E.C. Bronson: 1981, "Short-term longitudinal effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on EEG power and coherence", International Journal of Neuroscience 14, pp. 147-151
  11. ^ Dillbeck, M.C., and D.W. Orme-Johnson: 1987, "Physiological differences between Transcendental Meditation and rest", American Psychologist 42, pp. 879-881
  12. ^ MacLean, C.R.K., et al: 1996, "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on adaptive mechanisms: Changes in hormone levels and responses to stress after four months of practice", Psychoendrocrinology 22, pp. 277-295
  13. ^ Hypertension 26: 820–827, 1995
  14. ^ International Journal of Neuroscience 16: 53–58, 1982
  15. ^ Journal of Counseling and Development 64: 212–215, 1985
  16. ^ Journal of Human Stress 5: 24-27, 1979
  17. ^ The American Journal of Managed Care 3: 135–144, 1997
  18. ^ The American Journal of Managed Care 3: 135–144, 1997
  19. ^ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11: 13–87, 1994
  20. ^ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11: 13–87, 1994
  21. ^ Journal of Clinical Psychology 45: 957–974, 1989
  22. ^ Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds, U.S. Medicine,Matt Pueschel, July 2000
  23. ^ NIH Awards $8 Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine
  24. ^ Pollack, A. A., Weber, M. A., Case, D. B., Laragh, J. H. "Limitations of Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of essential hypertension." The Lancet, January 8, 1977, 71-73.
  25. ^ Schneider RH; et al. "Long-Term Effects of Stress Reduction on Mortality in Persons >55 Years of Age With Systemic Hypertension" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-09-12. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |citation= ignored (help)
  26. ^ Schneider RH; et al. "A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year". Retrieved 2006-09-12. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  27. ^ Effects of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation on Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Subjects With Coronary Heart Disease, Archives of Internal Medicine, Maura Paul-Labrador et al,, Vol. 166 No. 11, June 12, 2006
  28. ^ Stroke. 2000 Mar;31(3):568-73.
  29. ^ A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans, Robert H. Schneider et al, Hypertension, 1995, 26: 820-827
  30. ^ Orme-Johnson DW; et al. "Neuroimaging of meditation's effect on brain reactivity to pain". Retrieved 2006-09-12. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |citation= ignored (help)
  31. ^ "My Blood Pressure". {{cite web}}: |article= ignored (help)
  32. ^ Carsello, C. J. and Creaser, J. W. "Does Transcendental Meditation Training Affect Grades?" Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 644-645.
  33. ^ Nidich, S.I. and Nidich, R.J. Increased academic achievement at Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment: A replication study. Education 109: 302–304, 1989.
  34. ^ Kember, P. The Transcendental Meditation technique and postgraduate academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology 55: 164–166, 1985.
  35. ^ Intelligence (September/October 2001), Vol. 29/5, pp. 419-440
  36. ^ Canter, P., Ernst, E. (2003) The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function—a systematic review of randomised controlled trials Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2003 November 28;115(21-22):758-766
  37. ^ David Orme-Johnson: Critique of studies alleging that Transcendental Meditation technique has no effect
  38. ^ Deane H. Shapiro and Roger N. Walsh, editors, Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984), p. 207
  39. ^ Herron, Robert E., et al: 1996, “Cost-Effective Hypertension Management: Comparison of Drug Therapies with an Alternative Program,” The American Journal of Managed Care Vol. 11, No. 4, p. 433
  40. ^ "Article on David Lynch and Transcendental Meditation in the Guardian". {{cite web}}: |article= ignored (help)
  41. ^ Vesely,Carolin, “Its All in Your Mind” Winnipeg Free Press, March 21, 2006.
  42. ^ Smith, Adrian B. A Key to the Kingdom of Heaven: A Christian Understanding of Transcendental Meditation. Temple House Books, 1993.
  43. ^ Pennington, Basil. “TM and Christian Prayer”, Daily We Touch Him: Practical Religious Experiences. Doubleday, 1977:73
  44. ^ Meditations of Maharishi. p. 59
  45. ^ Zellers, Kelly L., Perrewe, Pamela. “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being”, Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance, M.E. Sharp, December 2002.
  46. ^ Introduction to the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment
  47. ^ Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
  48. ^ In his concurring opinion, Judge Adams said that the ceremony didn't violate the Establishment Clause because “(a) the Puja was never performed in a school classroom, or even on government property; (b) it was never performed during school hours, but only on a Sunday; (c) it was performed only once in the case of each student; (d) it was entirely in Sanskrit with neither the student nor, apparently, the teacher who chanted it, knowing what the foreign words meant. Moreover, the elements of involuntariness present in Engel and Schempp are wholly absent here.” Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)
  49. ^ Man Fails To Fly, Sues Camlot Owner, GTR News Online, Nancy K. Owens
  50. ^ Group Says Movement a Cult, The Washington Post, Phil McCombs, July 2, 1987
  51. ^ Michael A. Persinger et al, Christopher Pub House, May 1980, ISBN 0815803923
  52. ^ Shecter, H. The Transcendental Meditation program in the classroom: A psychological evaluation. Doctoral thesis (summary), Graduate Department of Psychology, York University, North York, Ontario, Canada. Dissertation Abstracs International 38 (07) (1977): 3372B
  53. ^ Alexander, C. N. Ego development, personality and behavioral change in inmates practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique or participating in other programs. Doctoral thesis, Department of Psychology and Social Relations, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 1982. Dissertation Abstracts International 43 (1982): 539B
  54. ^ Pelletier, K. R. Influence of Transcendental Meditation upon autokinetic perception. Perceptual and Motor Skills 39: 1031–1034, 1974
  55. ^ United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Civil Suit #85-2848, 1986
  56. ^ Kropinski v. WPEC, 853 F.2d 948
  57. ^ Trouble in transcendental paradise as murder rocks the Maharishi University, The Observer, May 2, 2004
  58. ^ Butler v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa, Central Div., Case No. 06-cv-00072
  59. ^ Kilian v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa
  60. ^ TM Independent
  61. ^ w.tm.org/main_pages/learn_tm.html Must be learned from a qualified teacher

Further reading


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Transcendental_Meditation&oldid=235027937"