Castra

Basic ideal plan of a Roman castrum. (1)Principia (2)Via Praetoria (3)Via Principalis (4)Porta Principalis Dextra (5)Porta Praetoria (main gate) (6)Porta Principalis Sinistra (7)Porta Decumana (back gate)

The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military defensive position. As the word appears in both Oscan and Umbrian (dialects of Italic) as well as in Latin, it probably descended from Indo-European to Italic. The terms Roman Camp and Roman Fort are commonly used for castra.

Types of castra

Reconstructed barracks of a Castra Hiberna, or "winter camp". Each doorway provides entry to a large room, the sleeping quarters of one contubernium, or "squad" of about 10 men.

Ruins of the Porta Praetoria, or "Headquarters Gate", from a Castra Stativa, a more permanent base.

The best known type of castra is the camp, a military town designed to house and protect the soldiers and their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "...as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight till they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first leveled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them." To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers.

Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti, "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. They could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra, quarta castra, etc., "a camp of three days", "four days", etc.

More permanent camps were castra stativa, "standing camps." The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia, "summer camps", in which the soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis, "under tents". Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks of more solid materials, public buildings and stone walls.

The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days; meanwhile, their open camps invited attack when they were least prepared.

Castra at Masada. Note the classical "playing-card" layout.

The Castra's unique structure also defended from attacks.

Etymology

The American Heritage Dictionary, following Julius Pokorny, lists *kes-, "cut", as the root. One castrum was a reservation of land "cut off" for military use. It could be an entire base, such as castrum Moguntiacum, or it could be a single fortified building. From the latter use came the English word castle (castellum, a diminutive of castrum).

Castra in the plural refers to a collection of structures. Considering that the earliest structures were tents, which were cut out of hide or cloth, one castrum may well be a tent, with the plural meaning tents. All but the most permanent bases housed the men in barracks of tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets. From the plural come English place-name suffixes such as -caster and -chester; e.g., Winchester, Lancaster.

Plan of the base

Gateway of a Castra Stativa. Note the battlements, the Roman arch, the turres.

File:Roman Camp Arges reconstruction.jpg

Camp Arges, Dacia (reconstruction), showing a good stone vallum, a porta and a turris.

Reconstruction of a specula or vigilarium (Germanic burgus), "watchtower", a type of castrum. An ancient watchtower would have been surrounded by wall and ditch.

Sources and origins

Even from the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Metatione Castrorum or De Munitionibus Castrorum by either Hyginus Gromaticus or Pseudo-Hyginus and the works of Polybius. Vegetius has a small section on entrenched camps as well. The terminology varies some but the basic plan is the same. To readers of the Rig Veda the pattern is strikingly familiar, as it is essentially the same as the Aryans invading early Pakistan (then India) used to lay out a village. That is not to say non-Indo-European peoples did not use it either. The hypothesis of an Etruscan origin is a viable alternative.

Layout

The ideal enforced a linear plan for every single fort. The plan was a square for camps to contain one legion or less, or a rectangle for two legions, each legion being placed back-to-back with headquarters next to each other. Laying it out was a geometric exercise conducted by officers called metatores, or gromatici, who used graduated measuring rods called decempedae ("10-footers") or gromae (Roman equivalent of a transit, but without the lenses, which they did not have), respectively. The layout process was a well-defined algorithm conducted by experienced men. It started in the centre at the planned site of the headquarters tent. Streets and architectural features were marked with coloured pennants or rods.

Wall and ditch

The base (munimentum, "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum was quadrangular aligned on the cardinal points of the compass. The construction crews dug a trench (fossa), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart (agger). On top of this a palisade of stakes (sudes or valli) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a fine brick or stone wall, and the ditch serve also as a moat. A legion-sized camp always placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery.

Interval

Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle (capita) and booty (praeda). Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis, probably "service road", as the sagum, a kind of cloak, was the garment of slaves.

Streets, gates and central plaza

Every camp included "main street", which ran unimpeded through the camp in a north-south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or Cardus Maximus. This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps.

Typically "main street" was the via principalis. The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command.

On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium, the building of the supply officer, or quaestor ("seeker"). On the other side was the forum, a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted. Along the Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded.

The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principle gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Which was on the north and which on the south depends on whether the praetorium faced east or west, which remains unknown.

The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria, so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and the Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters.

Across the central plaza (principia) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria. Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps.

On the other side of the praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana. In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria. The term Decumena, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take the name Via Decumena or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus.

Canteen

In peaceful times the camp set up a marketplace with the natives in the area. They were allowed into the camp as far as the units numbered 5 (half-way to the praetorium). There another street crossed the camp at right angles to the Via Praetoria, called the Via Quintana, "5th street". If the camp needed more gates, one or two of the Porta Quintana were built, presumably named dextra and sinistra. If the gates were not built, the Porta Decumana also became the Porta Quintana. At "5th street" a public market was allowed. The English word canteen comes from Quintana.

Major buildings

Not much remains of these horreae at Arbeia, probably the floors of bins between aisles.

The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii, the Praetentura and the Retentura. In the latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices), the Tribunal, where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain (horreae) or meat (carnarea). Sometimes the horreae were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall.

Roman artillery piece (Onager)

The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum, the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (Legati). Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexillae, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there.

The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to the Principia contained the Quaestorium. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard (Statores), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard.

Barracks

A sanitary channel at Potaissa. It is placed cross-slope with a slight decline and then exits down-slope.

Further from the Qaestorium were the tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries themselves in double rows of tents or barracks (Strigae). One Striga was as long as required and 60 feet (18 m) wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 30-foot (9 m) strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage.

A tent was 10 by 12 feet (two feet for the aisle), ten men per tent. Ideally a company took 10 tents, arranged in a line of 10 companies, with the 10th near the Porta Decumana. Of the 100 sq ft (9.3 m²). of bunk space each man received 10, or about 2 by 5 feet (2 m), which was only practical if they slept with heads to the aisle. The single tent with its men was called contubernium, also used for "squad". A squad during some periods was 8 men or fewer.

The Centurio, or company commander, had a double-sized tent for his quarters, which served also as official company area. Other than there, the men had to find other places to be. To avoid mutiny, it became extremely important for the officers to keep them busy.

A covered portico might protect the walkway along the tents. If barracks had been constructed, one company was housed in one barracks building, with the arms at one end and the common area at the other. The company area was used for cooking and recreation, such as gaming. The army provisioned the men and had their bread (panis militaris) baked in outdoor ovens, but the men were responsible for cooking and serving themselves. They could buy meals or supplementary foods at the canteen. The officers were allowed servants.

Sanitation

For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private latrines. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aquaductus, a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine, and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum, where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis.

Territory

The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria. In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not in themselves self-sustaining (as was the base). In this category were speculae, "watchtowers", castella, "small camps", and naval bases.

All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military.

Modifications in practice

This ideal was always modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view.

If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain. The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (aquatio) and pastureland to provide grazing (pabulatio) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defense troops could be formed in an acies, or "battle-line", outside the gates, where they could be easily resupplied and replenished, as well as being supported by archery from the palisade.

The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centered on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present.

Quadrangular camps in later times

Many settlements in Europe originated as Roman military camps and still show traces of their original pattern (e.g. Castres in France, Barcelona in Spain). The pattern was also used by Spanish colonizers in America following strict rules by the Spanish monarchy for founding new cities in the New World.

Many of the towns of England still retain forms of the word castra in their names, usually as the suffixes "-caster" or "-chester" -- Lancaster, Tadcaster, Chester, Manchester and Ribchester, for example. Castle has the same derivation, from the diminutive castellum or "little fort".

Camp life

Activities conducted in a castra can be divided into ordinary and "the duty" or "the watch". Ordinary activity was performed during regular working hours. The duty was associated with operating the installation as a military facility. For example, all the soldiers were not required to man the walls all the time, but some soldiers were required to be on duty there without a lapse.

Duty time was divided into vigilia, the eight watches into which the 24-hour day was divided. The Romans used signals on brass instruments to mark time. These were mainly the buccina or bucina (a relative of English bugle), the cornu and the tuba. As they did not possess valves for regulating the pitch, the range of these instruments was somewhat limited. Nevertheless the musicians (Aenatores, "brassmen") managed to define enough signals for issuing commands. The instrument used to mark the passage of a watch was the buccina, from which the trumpet derives. It was sounded by a buccinator.

Ordinary life

Under-floor heated granary at Vercovicium

Ordinary camp life began with a buccina call at daybreak, the first watch of the day. The soldiers arose at this time and shortly after collected in the company area for breakfast and assembly. The centurions were up before them and off to the Principia where they and the Equites were required to assemble. The regimental commanders, the Tribunes, were already converging on the Praetorium. There the general staff was busily at work planning the day. At a staff meeting the Tribunes received the password and the orders of the day. They brought those back to the Centuriones, who returned to their company areas to instruct the men, already breakfasted.

For soldiers, the main item of the agenda was a vigorous training session lasting about a watch long. Recruits received two, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. Planning and supervision of training were under a general staff officer, who might manage training at several camps. Vegetius tells us the men might take a 20-mile (32 km) hike or a 4- to 5- mile jog under full pack, or swim a river. Marching drill was always in order.

Every soldier was taught the use of every weapon and also was taught to ride. Seamanship was not excluded at bases that were also naval bases. Soldiers were generalists in the military and construction arts. They practiced archery, spear-throwing and above all swordmanship against posts (pali) fixed in the ground. Training was taken very seriously and was democratic. Ordinary soldiers would see all the officers training with them including the Praetor or the Emperor if he was in camp.

Swordmanship lessons and use of the firing range probably took place on the campus, a "field" outside the castra, from which English camp derives. Its surface could be lightly paved. Winter curtailed outdoor training. The general might in that case have sheds constructed, which served as field houses for training. There is archaeological evidence in one case of an indoor equestrian ring.

Apart from the training, each soldier had a regular job on the base, of which there were a large variety from the various kinds of clerks to the craftsmen. Soldiers changed jobs frequently. The commander's policy was to have all the soldiers skilled in all the arts and crafts so that they could be as interchangeable as possible. Even then the goal was not entirely achievable. The gap was bridged by the specialists, the optiones or "chosen men", of which there were many different kinds. For example, a skilled artisan might be chosen to superintend a workshop.

An aureus of the late republic

The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange. The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum, minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives.

Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (valetudinarium, later hospitium). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army. Its physicians, the medici ordinarii, had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well.

Further information: Medical community of ancient Rome and on hospitals and physicians in the military

Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army could not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (vici) of dependents and businessmen. Dependents were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory.

An enlistment was for about 25 years. At the end of that time the veteran was given a diploma, or certificate of honorable discharge (honesta missio). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship.

Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base. They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of St. Patrick's family.

Duties

The remains of a fort near Housesteads, England, on Hadrian's Wall.

Conducted in parallel with the ordinary activities was "the duty", the official chores required by the camp under strict military discipline. The Legate was ultimately responsible for them as he was for the entire camp, but he delegated the duty to a tribune chosen as officer of the day. The line Tribunes were commanders of Cohortes and were approximately the equivalent of colonels. The 6 tribunes were divided into units of two, with each unit being responsible for filling the position of officer of the day for two months. The two men of a unit decided among themselves who would take what day. They could alternate days or each take a month. One filled in for the other in case of illness. On his day, the tribune effectively commanded the camp and was even respected as such by the Legate.

The equivalent concept of the duties performed in modern camps is roughly the detail. The responsibilities (curae) of the many kinds of detail were distributed to the men by all the methods considered fair and democratic: lot, rotation and negotiation. Certain kinds of cura were assigned certain classes or types of troops; for example, wall sentries were chosen only from Velites. Soldiers could be temporarily or permanently exempted: the immunes. For example, a Triarius was immunis from the curae of the Hastati.

The duty year was divided into time slices, typically one or two months, which were apportioned to units, typically maniples or centuries. They were always allowed to negotiate who took the duty and when. The most common kind of cura were the posts of the sentinels, called the excubiae by day and the vigilae at night. Wall posts were praesidia, gate posts, custodiae, advance positions before the gates, stationes.

In addition were special guards and details. One post was typically filled by four men, one sentinel and the others at ease until a situation arose or it was their turn to be sentinel. Some of the details were:

• guarding, cleaning and maintaining the principia.
• guarding and maintaining the quarters of each tribune.
• tending the horses of each cavalry turma.
• guarding the praetorium.

List of castra

Due to an unbounded enthusiasm for local archaeology, the locations and layouts of Roman castra are rapidly becoming known. Both amateurs and professionals are involved in excavation and publication. Internet sites giving photographs and the texts of inscriptions are numerous.

Further information: List of castra and the names of Roman castra and links to Wikipedia articles describing or mentioning geographic sites and ruins

See also

• Fortification
• List of topics related to ancient Rome
• Military history of ancient Rome
• Roman legion

References

Primary Sources

Josephus. The War of the Jews  – via Wikisource.

• Population of Vindolanda (100 AD). "(the Tablets)" (shtml). Vindolanda Tablets Online: The Roman Army: Activities. Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents, Academic Computing Development Team at Oxford University. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)* pseudo-Hyginus. "De Munitionibus Castrorum" (html). The Latin Library. Ad fontes Academy. (Latin text.)
• Polybius. "The Histories (English translation) Book VI" (html). The Loeb Classical Library, Volume III Section VI. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Web publication on Bill Thayer's Polybius site.
• Roman government (160 AD). "(Military Diploma)" (html). Military Diploma of Discharge and Roman Citizenship 160 AD. Metz, George W. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Legion xxiv website.
• Unknown inscriber (3rd century AD). "(the Tombstone)". Tombstone of Anicius Ingenuus, Museum of Antiquities Website. Newcastle University. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Vegetius. "Flavius Vegetius Renatus Epitoma Rei Militaris Book I". Armamentarium. Selections, Latin and English juxtaposed by paragraph. Translator unknown.
• Vegetius Renatus, Flavius (2001). "The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari)" (html). Digital Attic 2.0. Brevik, Mads. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Books I-III only. The unknown editor altered the translation "to conform to modern usage" and abbreviated the text. Access is by subtitle. Search only within subsection.

Secondary Sources

• Johnson, Anne (1983). Roman Forts of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD in Britain and the German Provinces,. London: Adam & Charles Black. ISBN 1-56619-359-1.
• Keppie, Lawrence (1994). The Making of the Roman Army from Republic to Empire. New York: Barnes and Noble Books. ISBN 0-7136-2223-7.
• Roby, Henry John (1872). A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius: Second Edition. London: Macmillan. p. 453.

External links

Below are a number of links to sites reporting or summarizing current research or thinking. Many are reprints of articles made available to the publc at no charge. The historical researcher will find their bibiographies of great interest.

General

• "Army Picture Index" (html). Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. roman-empire.net.
• Bell, Anders (2001). "Castra et urbs romana: An Examination of the Common Features of Roman Settlements in Italy and the Empire and a System to aid in the Discovery of their Origins" (html). CAC Undergraduate Essay Contest for 2000-2001. Classical Association of Canada.
• Lewis, Charlton T. "Castrum/Castra" (html). A Latin Dictionary. The Perseus Digital Library. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Ramsay, William (1875). "Castra" (html). William Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John Murray, republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site.
• "The Roman Military in Britain". roman-britain.org. Links to a Glossary.
• The Romans in Britain, Glossary of Military terms. Note that both Latin and Greek terms with the same meaning are included.

Forts and fortifications

• "Antonine Wall Fort: Bearsden, New Kilpatrick, Strathclyde" (html). roman-britain.org.
• Hanson, W.S. (1995). "Westerton: A Roman Watchtower on the Gask Frontier" (PDF). Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot.). 125: pages 499–519. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• "Iron-Age Hillfort, Roman Stores Depot Brandon Camp, Leintwardine Herefordshire" (html). roman-britain.org.
• Lendering, Jona. "Haltern" (html). Livius articles on ancient history. livius.org.
• "Nidum: Roman Auxiliary Fort: Neath, West Glamorgan" (html). roman-britain.org.
• "Pinnata Castra: Roman Legionary Fortress & Marching Camps: Inchtuthill, Tayside" (html). roman-britain.org.
• "Roman Fortress" (html). Time trail. Exeter City Council.
• Smith, William (1875), "Vallum", A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London: John Murray, p. 1183. Article republished on Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius site, which has the advantage of linking to ancient texts cited by Smith.
• Tribus. "The Roman Camp in Bonn" (html). Eduvinet Services.
• "The Roman Camp Sostra". bulgariancastles.com.

Camp life

• Miranda, Frank (2002). "Castra et Coloniae: The Role of the Roman Army in the Romanization and Urbanization of Spain" (pdf). Quaestio: The UCLA Undergraduate History Journal. Phi Alpha Theta: History Honors Society, UCLA Theta Upsilon Chapter, UCLA Department of History.
• Scheidel, Walter (2005). "Marriage, Families and Survival in the Roman Imperial Army: Demographic Aspects" (pdf). Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Princeton University. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Verboven, Koenraad (2007), "Good for Business. The Roman Army and the Emergence of a 'Business Class' in the Northwestern Provinces of the Roman Empire (1st century BCE - 3rd century CE)" (PDF), in Lukas, De Blois; Elio, Lo Cascio (eds.), The Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC - AD 476). Economic, Social, Political, Religious and Cultural Aspects, Leiden & Boston: Brill, pp. 295–314, ISBN 9004160442