Ulster English
Orange: Ulster Scots,
White: Mid Ulster English,
Light Blue: South Ulster English,
Light Yellow: Hiberno-English
Mid Ulster English (sometimes simply Ulster English) is the dialect of most people in the traditional province of Ulster in Ireland, including those in the two main cities. The dialect has been greatly influenced by Ulster Irish Gaelic, but also by the languages of the British who arrived during the plantations – this includes the Scots and Scottish Gaelic languages. It represents a cross-over area between Ulster Scots in the north and Hiberno-English in the south.
Despite its name, the term Mid Ulster English is commonly used to describe the dialect of Ulster in general, not simply County Tyrone (where the geographical centre of the province lies). The accent of much of Cavan (in southwestern Ulster) is largely southern in character, whilst the accent in north Antrim (in northeastern Ulster) sounds much more akin to lowlands Scots. The rest of the province uses Mid Ulster English in differing varieties usually distinguished with reference to the county of origin of the speaker.
Phonology
Phonetics are in IPA.
Vowels
| /i/ | feet | /əi/ | fight | |||
| /e/ | fate | /əʉ/ | shout | |||
| /ɛ/ | bet | /ɛ̈/ | bit | |||
| /a/ | bat | /ɔ̈/ | but | |||
| /ɑ/ | pot | /ɔː/ | bought | |||
| /o/ | boat | /aː/ | father | |||
| /ʉ/ | boot | /ɔe/ | boy |
- Vowels have phonemic vowel length, with one set of lexically long and one of lexically short phonemes. This may be variously influenced by the Scots system. It is considerably less phonemic than Received Pronunciation, and in vernacular Belfast speech vowel length may vary depending on stress.
- /a/ in after /enwiki/w/, e.g. want, what, quality.
- /ɑ/ and /ɔː/ distinction in cot, body and caught, bawdy. Some varieties neutralise the distinction in long environments, e.g. don = dawn and pod = pawed.
- like, light, meat and beard also with /e/ [lek], [let], [met], [berd]
- /e/ may occur in such words as beat, decent, leave, Jesus, etc.
- Lagan Valley /ɛ/ before /k/ in take and make, etc.
- /ɛ/ before velars in sack, bag, and bang, etc.
- Merger of /a/ - /aː/ in all monosyllables, e.g. Sam and psalm [sɑːm].
- /i/ may occur before palatalized consonants, e.g. king, fish , condition, brick and sick.
- /ɑ/ may occur before /p/ and /t/ in tap and top, etc.
- /ʉ/ before /r/ in floor, whore, door, board, etc.
- Vowel oppositions before /r/, e.g. /ɛrn/ earn, /fɔr/ for and /for/ four.
Consonants
- Rhoticity, that is, retention of /r/ in all positions.
- Palatalisation of /k, ɡ, ŋ/ in the environment of front vowels.
- /l/ not vocalised, except historically; generally "dark" as in Scottish English rather than "slender" as in Hiberno-English.
- /b/ for /p/ in words such as pepper.
- /d/ for /t/ in words such as butter.
- /ɡ/ for /k/ in words such as packet.
- /ʍ/ - /enwiki/w/ contrast in which - witch. This feature is recessive, particularly in vernacular Belfast speech.
- Dental realisations of /t, d, n, l/ may occur through Irish influence before /r/, e.g. ladder, matter, dinner and pillar, etc.
- Elision of /d/ in hand [hɑːn], candle /'kanl/ and old [əʉl], etc.
- Elision of /b, ɡ/ in lamb [lam] and sing [sɪŋ], thimble, finger etc.
- /θ/ and /ð/ for th.
- /x/ for gh is retained in proper names and a few dialect words or pronunciations, e.g. lough, trough and sheugh.
Grammar derived from Irish
The morphology and syntax of Irish is quite different from that of English, and it has influenced both Ulster English and Hiberno-English to some degree.
Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (tú) and the second person plural (sibh), like English used to have. Ulster English mirrors Irish in that the singular "you" is distinguished from the plural "you". This is normally done by using the words yous, yousuns or yis.[1] For example:
- "Are yous not finished yet?"
- "Did yousuns all go to see it?"
Irish lacks words that directly translate as "yes" or "no", and instead repeats the verb in a question (positively or negatively) to answer. As such, Ulster English and Hiberno-English use "yes" and "no" less frequently than other English dialects.[2][3] For example:
- "Are you coming home soon?" "I am"
- "Is your computer working?" "It's not"
The absence of the verb "have" in Irish has influenced some grammar. The concept of "have" is expressed in Irish by the construction ag ("at") mé ("me") to create agam ("at me"). Hence, Ulster English speakers sometimes use the verb "have" followed by "with me/on me".[4] For example:
- "Do you have the book with you?"
- "Have you money for the bus on you?"
Ulster English by region
Belfast and surroundings
The urban Belfast dialect is not limited to the city itself but also takes in neighbouring urban areas in the local vicinity (such as Lisburn, Carrickfergus and Newtownards), as well as towns whose inhabitants originally came from Belfast (such as Craigavon). It is generally perceived as being associated with economically disadvantaged areas, and with youth culture. This however is not the dialect used in the media (even those outlets which are based in Belfast). Features of the accent include several vowel shifts, including one from /æ/ to /ɛ/ (/bɛɡ/ for "bag"). The accent is also arguably more nasal compared with the rest of Ulster[5].
The Belfast dialect is now becoming more frequently heard in towns in the 'commuter belt' whose inhabitants would have traditionally spoken with a 'country' accent. Examples or such areas are Moira, Kinallen, Dromore and Ballynahinch. It could be said that many youths in these areas prefer to use the more cosmopolitan city accent, as opposed to the local variant that their parents or neighbours would use.
Other phonological features include the following:
- Long vowels are diphthongized in closed syllables, usually to /ɪə/. Hence "maid" is pronounced /mɛ:d/, while "made" is /mɪəd/.
- The /ɔ/ phoneme in "pot" and "paw" is better distinguished than other Ulster dialects, with short "o" often unrounded (i.e. "not" is /nat/, while "pawed" is /pɔ:d/ (see "Vowel Lengthening" above).
- The /au/ phoneme is typically pronounced /ɑʉ/. In strong dialects, the second vowel in this diphthong can become a rhotic consonant, so that "doubt" and "dart" are nearly merged to /dɑɺt/. [6]
Some of the vocabulary used among young people in Ulster, such as the word "spide", is of Belfast origin.
Ulster Scots areas
This region is heavily influenced by the historic presence of Ulster Scots and covers areas such as northern and eastern County Antrim, the Ards Peninsula in County Down, the Lagan valley in County Down and northeastern County Londonderry. These districts are strongly Ulster Scots-influenced, and Scots pronunciation of words is often heard. People from here are often mistaken by outsiders as Scottish. This area includes the Glens of Antrim, where the last native Irish speakers of a dialect native to what is now Northern Ireland were to be found. It has been stated that, whilst in the written form, Gaelic of this area continued to use standardised Irish forms, the spoken dialect was inextricably Scottish, and was in effect no different to the Gaelic of Argyll, or Galloway (both in Scotland).
In the 1830s, Ordnance Survey memoirs came to the following conclusion about the dialect of the inhabitants of Carnmoney, east Antrim:
Their accent is peculiarly, and among old people disagreeably strong and broad.
The results of a BBC sociolinguistic survey can be found here. [7]
Derry City and surroundings
The accent of Derry City is actually that of western County Londonderry (including Dungiven and Limavady), northestern Donegal (including Inishowen), and northern Tyrone. There is a higher incidence of palatalisation after /k/ and its voiced equivalent /ɡ/[8](eg. /kʲɑɹ/ "kyar" for "car"), perhaps through influence from Hiberno-English. However, the most noticeable difference is perhaps the intonation, which is unique to the Derry and Strabane area.
Mid Ulster
The speech in counties southern and western Donegal, southern Tyrone, southern Londonderry, northern Fermanagh, north Armagh, northern Monaghan, southwestern Antrim and most of Down form a geographical band across the province from east to west. On the whole, these areas have much more in common with the Derry accent in the west than inner-city Belfast except in the east. This accent is often claimed as being the "standard" Northern Irish dialect as it is the most widely used, and it is the dialect of famous Irish writer Séamus Heaney.
South Ulster
Areas such as southern and western Armagh, central Monaghan, northern Cavan and southern Fermanagh is the hinterland of the larger Mid-Ulster dialect. The accent gradually shifts from village to village, forming part of the dialect continuum between areas to the North and South (as it once did in Gaelic). This accent is also used in north Louth (located in Leinster) and in north Leitrim (in Connacht). The last native Irish speakers in these areas were likewise midway between Ulster Gaelic and more southern dialects.
Vocabulary
Much non-standard vocabulary found in Mid Ulster English and many meanings of Standard English words peculiar to the dialect come from Scots and Irish. Some examples are shown in the table below. Many of these are also used in Hiberno-English, especially in the northern half of the island.
| Mid-Ulster English | Standard English | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| ach!, och!, ack! | annoyance, regret, etc. (general exclamation) | Usually used to replace "ah!" and "oh!". Ach is Irish for "but", and can be used in the same context.[9] |
| aye, auy | yes | Heard throughout Ireland, Scotland and parts of northern England. General Scots and dialect or archaic English, first attested 1575. |
| bake | mouth | From Scots, extension of meaning from beak. |
| banjax | to break/ruin/destroy | Heard throughout Ireland, of unknown origin.[10] |
| boak, boke | to retch, to vomit | From Scots bowk, Middle Scots L-vocalisation with West Central monophthongisation to /o/ betraying the origins of Scottish Planters. Cognate with Old English bealcan.[11] |
| boreen | a narrow road/lane/track | From Irish bóithrín meaning "small road".[12] |
| caul | cold | From Scots cauld meaning "cold".[13] |
| claggerd | covered with something adhesive (usually dirt) | From Scots clag meaning "to besmear".[14] |
| cowp, cope | to tip over, to fall over | From Scots cowp, Middle Scots L-vocalisation with West Central monophthongisation to /o/ betraying the origins of Scottish Planters.[15] |
| crack, craic | banter, fun, gossip, news (eg. "What's the crack?) |
From Scots or northern English. Originally spelt crack but the Gaelic spelling craic is now common. |
| craitur | a term of endearment (eg. "The poor craitur") |
Mid Ulster pronunciation of creature where ea is realised /e/ (see above) and -ture as archaic /tər/ rather than the standard affricate /tʃər/. |
| culchie | a farmer, a rural dweller | Either from Irish coillte meaning "the wood/forest"[16] or from the -culture in "agriculture". Some say it derives from the Irish cúl a' tí meaning "back of the house", for it was common practise for country people to go in the back door of the house they were visiting.[17] |
| dander | walk (noun or verb) | Usually encountered as a noun in Scots (daunder), its use as a verb is well attested in the Dictionary of the Scots Language, and its use in Ulster may reflect the preponderence of nouns over verbs in an Irish adstrate. |
| eejit | idiot | From the Hiberno-English pronunciation of "idiot".[18] |
| fella | man | From fellow; ultimately from Norse felagi. |
| founderd | to be cold | From Scots foundert/foondert/fundert which can mean "(to be numbed by) a severe chill".[19] |
| geg, geggin | joke, joking | From English gag meaning "a joke/prank". |
| gob, gub | mouth | From Irish gob or Scots gab, both meaning "mouth". |
| gutties, guddies | running shoes | From Scots, in which it is used to mean anything made of rubber. Note also the phrase "Give her the guttie" meaning "Step on it (accelerate)".[20] |
| hallion | a good-for-nothing | From Scots hallion meaning "rascal".[21] |
| hoak, hoke | to search for, to forage (eg. "Have a hoak for it") |
From Scots howk, Middle Scots L-vocalisation with West Central monophthongisation to /o/.[22] |
| jap | to spill | From Scots jaup meaning "to spill".[23] |
| jouk, juke, duke | to duck, to dodge | From Scots jouk meaning "to dodge".[24] |
| lock'a | an unspecified amount (eg. "In a lock'a minutes") |
From Irish loca meaning "a pile of" or "a wad of", or simply an extended meaning of "lock" as in "a lock of hair". |
| lug | ear | From Norse. Originally used to mean "an appendage" (cf. Norwegian lugg meaning "a tuft of hair"). Heard throughout Ireland. |
| malarky | nonsense | Probably from Irish. |
| oxter | armpit, under-arm | From Scots oxter meaning "armpit" and "to carry under-arm".[25] |
| poke | ice-cream | From Scots poke meaning "bag" or "pouch". |
| quare, kwer | very, considerable (eg. "A quare distance") |
Used throughout Ireland, a different pronunciation and extended meaning of "queer".[26] |
| scunnerd, scunderd | annoyed, embarrassed | From Scots scunnert meaning "offended" or "fed up".[27] |
| sheugh | a small shallow ditch (pronounced /ʃʌx/) |
From Scots sheuch meaning "ditch".[28] |
| skite, skitter, scoot | to move quickly | From Norse skjuta meaning "to shoot" (cf. Norwegian skutla meaning "to glide quickly"). |
| slew | a great amount | From Irish slua meaning "a crowd/multitude".[29] |
| til | to | From Norse til. |
| theday/themarra | today/tomorrow | From Scots the day/the morra. |
| thon | that | From Scots, originally yon in archaic English, the th by analogy with this and that.[30] |
| thonder | there, something distant but within sight | From Scots, originally yonder in archaic English. |
| throughother | untidy | Probably from Irish. Though, it has parallels in both Goidelic (eg. Irish trína chéile) and Germanic (eg. Scots throuither,[31] German durcheinander). |
| wee | little, but also used as a generic diminutive | Cognate with German wenig meaning "a little", although more closely related to English weigh. Heard throughout north Connacht, north Leinster and Scotland. |
| wheeker | excellent | From Scots wheech meaning "to snatch". Onomatopoeic.[32] |
| whisht | be quiet (a command) | The Irish huist,[33] meaning "be quiet", is an unlikely source since the word is known throughout England and Scotland where it derives from early Middle English whist[34] (cf. Middle English hust[35] and Scots wheesht[36]). |
| wojus | awful | Heard throughout Ireland, probably a variation of "odious". |
| ye | you (singular) | From Old English ye, but pronounced with a short e sound. |
| yous, yousuns | you (plural) | See grammar derived from Irish. |
Furthermore, speakers of the dialect conjugate many verbs according to how they are formed in the most vernacular forms of Ulster Scots, e.g. driv instead of drove and driven as the past tense of drive, etc. (literary Scots druive, driven). Verbal syncretism is extremely widespread, as is the Northern subject rule|-
See also
References
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: yous
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: yes
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: no
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: have
- ^ Here a film critic describes the nasal Belfast accent that American actress Gillian Anderson put on for the film The Mighty Celt as "nothing short of the real thing".
- ^ See Wells for more information on the Belfast dialect.
- ^ From p 13 of Ulster-Scots: A Grammar of the Traditional Written and Spoken Language, by Robinson, Philip, published 1997.
- ^ Elmes, Simon Talking for Britain: A Journey Through the Nation's Dialects (2005) (ISBN 0-14-051562-3)
- ^ Irish Dictionary Online: ach
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: banjax
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Bowk
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: boreen
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Cauld
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Clag
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Cowp
- ^ Irish Dictionary Online: coill
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: culchie
- ^ Hiberno-English Archive: eejit
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Founder
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Guttie
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Hallion
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Howk
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Jaup
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Jouk
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Oxter
- ^ SND
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Scunner
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Sheuch
- ^ Irish Dictionary Online: slua
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Thon
- ^ SND
- ^ Dictionary of the Scots Language: Wheech
- ^ www.hiberno-english.com
- ^ Whist
- ^ hust
- ^ DOST