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Hispanic and Latino Americans
Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos
Gloria EstefanCésar ChávezZoe SaldanaRomualdo Pacheco
Franklin Chang-DiazIsabel AllendeJoseph A. UnanueMarcelo Balboa
Gloria Estefan • César Chávez • Zoe Saldana • Romualdo Pacheco
Franklin Chang-Diaz • Isabel Allende • Joseph A. Unanue • Marcelo Balboa
Regions with significant populations
Predominantly Southwestern United States • Florida • Illinois • New York City
Languages
Predominantly American English and Spanish
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholicism;
minority Protestantism, Islam, Judaism and others
Related ethnic groups
Latin Americans, Spaniards, Latin Europeans and others

Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans of Hispanic or Latino descent, which comprises ancestry or origins in Hispanic America or in Spain.[2][3][4][5]

Hispanics and Latinos constitute 15.1% of the total United States population, or 45.4 million people,[1] forming the second largest ethnic group after non-Hispanic White Americans (itself composed of dozens of ethnic groups). Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Dominican Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, Spanish Americans, and Salvadoran Americans are some of the Hispanic and Latino American sub-groups.

People of Hispanic or Latino heritage have lived continuously[6][7][8][9] in the territory of the present-day United States since the 1565 founding of St. Augustine, Florida by the Spanish, the longest among European American ethnic groups and second-longest of all U.S. ethnic groups, after American Indians. Hispanic communities have also been living continuously in Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and California since the 18th century.[10][11] The Hispanic presence can even be said to date from half a century earlier, if San Juan, Puerto Rico is considered to be the oldest Spanish settlement, and the oldest city, in the U.S.[12]

For the U.S. government and others, Hispanic or Latino identity is voluntary, as in the United States Census, and in some market research.[13]

Terminology

Part of a series on
Hispanic and
Latino Americans
National origin groups
History
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In the United States, Hispanic and Latino are the main terms employed to categorize any person, of any racial or ethnic background, who is of Hispanic American or Spanish origin or descent.[14][2] The Census Bureau includes Spaniards as well anyone who self identifies as Spanish American in the Hispanic/Latino category.[15][16]

Listed here are the 28 Hispanic or Latino categories displayed in Census 2000 tabulations:[15] Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican Republic; Central American: Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Other Central American; South American: Argentinian, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, Venezuelan, Other South American; Other Hispanic or Latino: Spaniard, Spanish, Spanish American, All other Hispanic.

The term Hispanic was first adopted in the United States by the administration of Richard Nixon,[17] and has since been used in local and federal employment, mass media, academia, and business market research. It has been used in the U.S. Census since 1980.[18] Due to the widespread, popular use of "Latino", the government adopted this term as well in 1997, and it was used in the 2000 census.[14][5]

The terms "Hispanic" and "Spanish" are not to be confused. The Spanish (or Spaniards) are the people who are native to or who have origins in Spain, located in mainland Europe.

Previously, Hispanics were categorized as "Spanish-Americans," "Spanish-speaking Americans," and "Spanish-surnamed Americans." These terms, however, proved misleading or inaccurate, since:

  • Although a large majority of Hispanics have Spanish ancestry, most Hispanics are not of direct (non-Latin American) Spanish descent; many are not primarily of Spanish descent; and some Hispanics are not of Spanish descent at all. For example, there are Hispanics of other European ancestries (e.g. Italian, German, Polish), as well as Middle Eastern (e.g. Lebanese), Black, Amerindian/Native American, Asian, and mixed race ancestries — of the latter, Mestizo (White and Indigenous/Native American) and Mulatto (White and Black) are the most common. On the other hand, descendants of Spaniards such as Hispanos and Islenos, both of whose American history extends back for centuries, identify solely with the United States rather than with Spain; [citation needed]

The terms Hispanic and Latino are not held to be synonymous by all authorities of American English, as seen in the following quotation:

"Though often used interchangeably in American English, Hispanic and Latino are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant. Hispanic, from the Latin word for "Spain," has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common. Latino—which in Spanish means "Latin" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word latinoamericano—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin. Of the two, only Hispanic can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a Hispanic, not a Latino, and one cannot substitute Latino in the phrase the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures without garbling the meaning. In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word."[19]

Neither term refers to race, as a person of Latino or Hispanic descent can be of any race.[20][5]

As officially defined in the United States, Latino does not include Brazilian Americans,[4][5] and specifically refers to "Spanish culture or origin,"[4][5] although some dictionary definitions may include them or Brazilians in general. Furthermore, Hispanic or Latino origin is, like race, a matter of self-identification in the U.S., and government and non-government questionnaires, including the census form,[21] usually contain a blank entry space wherein respondents can indicate a Spanish/Hispanic/Latino origin other than the few (Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban) which are specified; presumably, any Brazilian American wishing to do so can thus self-identify as being of Latino origin (as can anyone with no Latin American background). However, the government's population reports do not include Brazilian Americans with Hispanics and Latinos.[22][5]

History

Main article: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans
See also: Hispanic Heritage Sites (U.S. National Park Service)
File:Hispanic Flag2.png
Flag of Hispanic America

A continuous Hispanic presence in the territory of the United States has existed since the 16th century,[6][7][9][8] earlier than any other group after the Native Americans. Spaniards pioneered the present–day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental U.S. was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida. Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, four castaways from a Spanish expedition, including a "Moor", journeyed all the way from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In 1540 Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present U.S., and in the same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US make up a long list that includes, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate. In all, Spaniards probed half of today's lower 48 states before the first English colonization attempt at Roanoke Island in 1585.

The Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. Santa Fe, New Mexico also predates Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and Plymouth Colony (of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame; founded in 1620). Later came Spanish settlements in San Antonio, Texas, Tucson, Arizona, San Diego, California, Los Angeles, California and San Francisco, California, to name just a few. The Spanish even established a Jesuit mission in Virginia's Chesapeake Bay 37 years before the founding of Jamestown.

Hispanics as a percentage of the US population (2000 Census Data)

Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too. Almost 80 years before John Smith's alleged rescue by Pocahontas, a man by the name of Juan Ortiz told of his remarkably similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving — 56 years before the famous Pilgrims festival — when they feasted near St. Augustine with Florida Indians, probably on stewed pork and garbanzo beans. As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, Spain held claim to roughly half of today's continental United States; in 1775, Spanish ships even reached Alaska. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican-American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring three of today's four most populous states — California, Texas and Florida — and several smaller ones. Hispanics became the first American citizens in these new territories, and remained a majority in several Southwestern states until the 20th century. (See also Viceroyalty of New Spain.)

Hispanic soldiers have fought in all the wars of the United States.[23] See also List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients

Demographics

See also: Demographics of the United States and Racial and ethnic demographics of the United States
Population by state (2006)[24]
State Population Percentage of
state population
New Mexico New Mexico 860,687 44.0
California California 13,074,155 35.9
Texas Texas 8,385,118 35.7
Arizona Arizona 1,803,377 29.2
Nevada Nevada 610,051 24.4
Florida Florida 3,642,989 20.1
Colorado Colorado 934,410 19.7
New York (state) New York 3,139,590 16.3
New Jersey New Jersey 1,364,699 15.6
Illinois Illinois 1,888,439 14.7

As of July 1, 2006, Hispanics accounted for 14.8% of the national population, around 44.3 million people. (15.1%, around 45.4 million, in July, 2007.) The Hispanic growth rate over the July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 period was 3.4% — higher than any other minority group in the United States,[25] and in fact three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population (at 1.0%).[26] The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050, is of 102.6 million people, or 24.4% of the nation’s total projected population on that date.[27]

Of the nation's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49% (21.5 million) lives in California or Texas. Not counting Puerto Rico — which is a territorial possession of the United States — New Mexico is the state with the highest ratio of Hispanics, where 44.7% is of Hispanic origin. Next are California and Texas, with 35.9 and 35.6, respectively.[28]

The Hispanic population of Los Angeles County, California, numbering 4.7 million, is the largest of any county in the nation.[29] It comprises 47 percent of Los Angeles County's ten million residents.[30]

Some 64% of the nation's Hispanic population are of Mexican ancestry (see table). Another 9% are of Puerto Rican background, with about 3% each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder are of other Central American or South American descent, or of descent directly from Spain. About 7% are of unspecified national origins.

Population by national origin (2006)[31]
Hispanic Group Population Percentage
Mexico Mexican 28,395,997 64.1
Puerto Rico Puerto Rican 3,985,058 9.0
Cuba Cuban 1,517,028 3.4
El Salvador Salvadoran 1,363,726 3.1
Dominican Republic Dominican 1,217,160 2.7
Guatemala Guatemalan 896,780 2.0
Colombia Colombian 793,682 1.8
Honduras Honduran 486,026 1.1
Ecuador Ecuadorian 478,957 1.1
Peru Peruvian 430,009 1.0
Spain Spaniard 372,632 0.8
Nicaragua Nicaraguan 298,928 0.7
Venezuela Venezuelan 176,451 0.4
Argentina Argentine 175,944 0.4
Panama Panamanian 124,138 0.3
Costa Rica Costa Rican 111,678 0.3
Chile Chilean 93,465 0.2
Bolivia Bolivian 86,465 0.2
Uruguay Uruguayan 46,836 0.1
Paraguay Paraguayan 15,751 0.03
Other Central American 115,064 0.3
Other South American 72,541 0.2
"Spanish"/"Hispanic"/"Latino" 3,044,659 6.9

The overwhelming majority of Mexican Americans are concentrated in the Southwestern United States, primarily California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada and New Mexico. The majority of the Hispanic population in the Southeastern United States, concentrated in Florida, are of Cuban origin. The Hispanic population in the Northeastern United States, concentrated in New York and New Jersey, is composed mostly of Puerto Ricans, however, the Dominican population has risen considerably in the last decade. The remainder of Hispanics, composed of various Central American and South American origins, may be found throughout the country, though South Americans tend to concentrate on the East Coast (joining Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and Cubans) and Central Americans on the West Coast (joining Mexicans/Mexican Americans).

There are few recent immigrants directly from Spain. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard.[32] Additionally, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish" as their ancestry.[32]

The Census Bureau reports a decrease in the percentages of Hispanics, of all national groups, including Spaniards, who identify themselves with a specific national origin, in favor of general labels such as "Hispanic". Several long–established Hispanic communities within the present–day territory of the United States do clearly fall within a traditional national origin category. One example is the Hispanic population of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. These peoples trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers who arrived in the region during the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispano," "Spanish," or "Hispanic." Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a mestizo population.[33] Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry.

Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau. The racial categories are six: American Indian and Alaska Native, White, Black or African American, Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, Some other race, and Two or more races. The distinction made by government agencies for those within the population of each race category is between those with Hispanic ethnic backgrounds and all others of non-Hispanic ethnic backgrounds.[5]

Race by Hispanic Origin (2000)[34]
Country of Origin White Black Some Other Race
Mexico Mexican 47.3% 0.7 45.5
Puerto Rico Puerto Rican 47.2% 5.9 37.9
Cuba Cuban 85.0% 3.6 7.1
Dominican Republic Dominican 22.7% 8.9 58.4
Central American 40.4% 3.3 47.6
South American 59.6% 0.9 30.8
Other Hispanic 44.1% 2.0 42.2

A majority of Hispanic and Latino Americans are white, per both sets of government estimates: a slight majority of 52% is white per the American Community Survey,[35] a figure which rises to 93% in the Population Estimates Program, which are the official estimates.[36] This is due to the absence of the Some other race category from the official estimates, which instead reallocate it among the five standard, minimum race categories, mostly the white category.[37]

Notable contributions

Although generally underrepresented, Hispanic and Latino Americans have made many contributions to the United States and distinguished themselves in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, sports, business and economy, and science.

Business

Hispanic and Latino standouts in business include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of Coca–Cola.[38] Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major sports team in the United States when he purchased the Anaheim Angels baseball club.[39] The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the U.S. is Goya Foods, which position it attained under World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.[40]

Government

Main article: List of Hispanic Americans in the United States Congress

Hispanic Americans have held important positions at all levels of US government.

Ken Salazar, U.S. Senator

Hispanics and Latinos in the Federal Cabinet include, among others, Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Manuel Lujan, Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña former Secretary of Energy; Lauro Cavazos, former Secretary of Education; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations.

In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Romualdo Pacheco, Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, and Manuel Lujan, Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Joe Baca, Silvestre Reyes, Nydia Velázquez, Rubén Hinojosa, Linda Sánchez, and John Salazar; in all, they number twenty-three. Senators include former senators Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Dennis Chavez, and Joseph Montoya and current senators Mel Martinez, Ken Salazar, and Bob Menendez.

Governors include former governors Romualdo Pacheco, Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, and Bob Martinez, and current New Mexico governor Bill Richardson. Numerous Hispanic or Latino mayors and local executives, and state and local legislators have held and currently hold office throughout the United States.

The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC) founded in December 1976 and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC) founded on March 19, 2003 are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. The Congressional hispanic Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Conference are divided into the two major American political parties: Democrat and Republicans. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic Congressmen, and the Congressional Hispanic Conferece is composed entirely of Republican Congressmen.

Military

See also: List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients

Hispanic and Latino participation in the military of the United States has occurred since the founding of the republic, and military recruitment is quite active in the nation's Hispanic communities. Tens of thousands of Latinos are deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and US military missions and bases elsewhere.

Performings arts

File:VMA 06.jpg
Christina Aguilera is of Ecuadorian descent

There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Christina Aguilera, Mariah Carey, Jennifer Lopez, Joan Baez, Selena, Ricky Martin, Carlos Santana, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Marc Anthony, Linda Ronstadt, Robert Trujillo, and Ritchie Valens. Latino and Hispanic music remains popular in the United States and around the world.

Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed prominent actors and others in the television and film industries, past and present, a few of whom includes director, producer, and cinematographer Robert Rodriguez and actors Anthony Quinn, Jessica Alba, Cameron Diaz, Martin Sheen, Salma Hayek, Rita Hayworth, Benicio Del Toro, Eva Mendes, Desi Arnaz, Zoe Saldana, George Lopez, Alexis Bledel, Edward James Olmos, Maria Montez, Erik Estrada, Eva Longoria Parker, Rosie Perez, Ricardo Montalban, Jimmy Smits, Raquel Welch, Marquita Rivera, Charlie Sheen, Rita Moreno, Frankie J, Tamala Jones, and Andy Garcia.

Cameron Diaz

Created in 1995 The American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award is a distinction awarded given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza. This awards fesival is commonly referred to as the "Latin American Oscars" in North America. The most prestigious Latin music awards today are the Latin Grammy Awards launched in 2000. In addition to the Latin Grammys, Billboard Magazine also honors this artis in the Billboard Latin Music Awards. Differences between the Latin Grammy Awards and the Billbord Latin Music Awards are that the Billboard Latin Music Awards nominees and winners are a result of performance on Billboard's sales and radio charts and the Latin Grammy Awards nominees and winners are selected by the Latin Recording Academy (LARAS). In addition the Latin Grammy Awards airs on Univision while the Billboard Latin Music Awards airs on Telemundo, the two major Spanish-language television network competitors in the United States.

Science and technology

Dr. Juan R. Cruz

Among Hispanic Americans that have excelled in science, we find Luis Walter Alvarez, Nobel Prize-winning physicist, and his son Walter Alvarez, the geologist who first proposed the well-known asteroid collision theory of dinosaur extinction; Ellen Ochoa, pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; and Lieutenant Colonel Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist. Franklin Chang-Diaz a Costa Rican-American astronaut who holds two records for being first Latin American (for NASA) and for most flights into space and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets.

Sports

File:Oscardelahoya vs pacquiao.jpg
Oscar de la Hoya

Many Hispanic Americans have excelled in sports. The large number of Hispanic and Latino American athletes that have starred in Major League Baseball includes Manny Ramirez, Lefty Gomez, Ivan Rodriguez, Juan Marichal, Alex Rodriguez, Orlando Hernandez, and David Ortiz, as well as National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum members Roberto Clemente and Rod Carew. It also includes manager Al Lopez, one of the sport's all time greatest.

Boxing champion Oscar De La Hoya, National Football League Pro Football Hall of Fame player Anthony Muñoz, National Soccer Hall of Fame player Tab Ramos, tennis legend Pancho Gonzales, and World Golf Hall of Fame golfers Juan "Chi-Chi" Rodríguez, Nancy Lopez, Lee Trevino, and softball player Lisa Fernandez are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their respective fields of sport. In 1999 Scott Gomez became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League. Elsewhere we find Professional wrestler Oscar Gutierrez, better known by his ring name Rey Mysterio Jr.

Socioeconomic circumstances

Las Damas Panamericanas, a Hispanic women's club in Los Angeles, 1948

Immigration from Hispanic countries, such as Mexico and Cuba, have followed adverse political and economic circumstances there. The strongest waves of Mexican immigrants came between the late 1970s and mid–1990s, when the value of the Mexican currency (the peso) dropped suddenly to half its value, sending the country into economic shock. Many of the people who have come from Mexico are from the poor parts of Mexico City, the southern states with large Amerindian communities, and also the poor parts of the north of Mexico. In the late 1990s more Mexican professionals have started to work between the two countries, and some of the lower middle class has also begun to immigrate.

Some Cuban immigrants were from privileged socioeconomic positions, and were fleeing Fidel Castro's communist government.

Workforce and average income

In 2002, the average individual income for Hispanics was highest amongst Cuban Americans ($38,733), and lowest amongst Dominican Americans ($28,467) and Mexican Americans ($27,877). Puerto Ricans ($33,927) and Central and South Americans ($30,444) placed in–between. In comparison, the income of the average Hispanic American is lower than the national average.

Among Hispanics, Cuban Americans (28.5 percent) had the highest percentage in professional–managerial occupations, but that percentage was lower than the average for non–Hispanics (36.2 percent). In comparison, the percentage for Puerto Ricans was 20.7, Central and South Americans' was 16.8 percent and Mexican Americans' was 13.2 percent.[citation needed]

Education

File:Teachfreedom.jpg
Bob Just (left) and Jaime Escalante (center) receiving the Teach Freedom Award from former President Ronald Reagan.

High school graduation rates are highest among Cuban Americans (68.7 percent) and lowest among Mexican Americans (48.7 percent). Other Hispanic groups fall in–between, including Puerto Ricans (63.2 percent), Central and South Americans (60.4 percent) and Dominican Americans (51.7 percent).

According to the 2000 census, Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans had the highest college graduation rates, with 19.4 percent of Cuban Americans and 16 percent of Central and South Americans 25 years and older achieving a 4–year college degree. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans had considerably lower college graduation rates, with only 6.2 percent of Mexican Americans, 9.9 of Puerto Ricans and 10.9 of Dominican Americans achieving a 4–year college degree. In comparison non–Hispanic Asian Americans (43.3 percent) and non–Hispanic White Americans (26.1 percent) had a higher graduation rate than all Hispanic American groups. Non–Hispanic Black Americans (14.4 percent) had a lower graduation rate than Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans but had a higher graduation rate than Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Dominican Americans.[citation needed]

Cuban Americans have the highest attainment of graduate degrees among all Hispanic groups, with 6.7 percent. The Central and South Americans ratio is 4.2 percent. Both are lower than those of non–Hispanic Asian Americans (15.6 percent) and non–Hispanic White Americans (8.7 percent). Non–Hispanic Black Americans (4.1 percent) have a higher percentage of graduate level degrees than all Hispanic groups with the exception of Cuban Americans and South and Central Americans. Of those 25 years and older only 3.1 percent of Puerto Ricans, 1.8 percent of Dominican Americans and 1.4 percent of Mexican Americans have attained a graduate level degree.[citation needed]

Poverty

According to ACS Reports, among Hispanic groups the poverty Rate is highest among Hispanics from the Caribbean such as Dominican Americans (28.1 percent)[41] and Puerto Ricans (23.7 percent)[41], and lowest among South Americans such as Colombian Americans (10.6 percent) [41]and Peruvian Americans (13.6 percent)[41]. In comparison, the average poverty rates for European Americans (6.3 percent) and Asian Americans (7.1 percent) were lower than that of any Hispanic group. African Americans (21.3 percent) have a higher poverty rate than all Hispanic groups, with the exception of Dominican Americans and Puerto Ricans.

Discrimination

See also: Discrimination against Mexican Americans

Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, and use of the Spanish language.[42][43][44][45]

In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.[46]

According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti-Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003. In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos has almost doubled.[47]

Main article: Hispanic and Latino American politics
File:CHCCirca1984.jpg
Bill Richardson (center), as the chairman of the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, circa 1984.

Hispanics and Latinos are the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States. They differ on their political views depending on their location and background, but the majority (57%)[48] identify themselves as Democrats or support the Democrats, as reflected in the voting results of recent decades. 23% of Hispanics and Latinos identify themselves as Republicans.[48] The 34% percentage point gap as of December, 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. Cubans and Colombians tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans, while Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominicans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats; however, because the latter groups are far more numerous, as Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics and Latinos, the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position among Hispanics overall.

President Bill Clinton's Latino Appointees in 1998

The Presidency of George W. Bush has had a significant impact on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos. As a former Governor of Texas, President Bush has regarded this growing community as a potential source of growth for the conservative movement and the Republican Party,[citation needed] and he made some gains for the Republican Party among the group.

In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics backed President Bill Clinton, but in 2000, that Democratic total fell to 62%, and down further to 58% in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58-40 over Bush. Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63-32 for John Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56-43 margin, but Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly (50-49 for Kerry), and Florida Latinos (mostly being Cuban American) backed Bush by a 54-45 margin.

In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal immigration, and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed Hispanic and Latino Americans voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69-30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly. The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics, and Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters, as heavily Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and heavily Anglo counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla. There has been talk in the media that the heated Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 may have done significant damage to the Republican party's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos in the years to come, especially in the swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and Colorado.

2008 election

Primaries

In the 2008 U.S. Presidential election, Hispanics and Latinos have been participating in large numbers in the Democratic primary. They have often preferred Hillary Clinton.[49] In the matchup between Democratic candidate Barack Obama and Republican candidate John McCain as of June 2008 for the presidential race, Hispanics and Latinos supported Senator Barack Obama 59% to Senator John McCain's 29% in the Gallup tracking poll. 18% of participants identified themselves as Republicans in the same Gallup poll that polled 4,604 registered Hispanic voters.[50]

General

In the 2008 election, 66% of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Barack Obama, which is 23% higher than George Bush's[51] and 32% voted for McCain[52] with a relatively stronger turnout than previous elections in states such as Colorado, New Mexico and Florida and helping him carry states such as Nevada, Virginia, Colorado and New Mexico. Barack Obama won 75% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of traditionally conservative Cuban-Americans that have strong presence in Florida and the changing demographic of Florida to more non-Cuban Hispanics also contributed in him carrying the state of Florida by 57% over McCain[53].

Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are LULAC, the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy.

Culture

Main articles: American culture and Hispanic culture

The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans extends to culture, as well. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics and Latinos from these diverse backgrounds.

Media

Univision, USA's largest Spanish-language television network
Latino Public Broadcasting

The United States is home to thousands of Spanish language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers, some of which are online versions of their printed counterparts and others online exclusively.

Among the noteworthy Spanish-language media outlets are:

  • Univision, the largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, including numerous affiliates internationally;
  • Telemundo, the second–largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, including numerous affiliates internationally;
  • La Opinión, a Spanish-language daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California and distributed throughout the six counties of Southern California. It is the largest Spanish-language newspaper in the United States.
  • El Nuevo Herald, a Spanish-language daily newspaper serving the greater Miami, Florida market;
  • Vida Latina, a Spanish-language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the Southern United States.

In the aspect of public television, otherwise known as non-commercial television, there are organizations that advocate a greater degree of programming from a Hispanic or Latino perspective. The National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC) has been a leader since its founding in 1986 in advocating for Latino inclusion in television, radio and film.[54] In 1999, along with a board coalition of national Latino organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks after discovering that there were no Latinos in any of their new prime time shows that year.[55] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC that have increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks since then. Also prominent in this area is Latino Public Broadcasting, which funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These LPB-funded projects are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.

Language

With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants,[56] and with many of the 60% who are U.S.–born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large: at least 69% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans over age five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English–speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish–speakers; another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.[57] In all, a full 90% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans speak English, and at least 78% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans speak Spanish.[57]

The usual pattern is monolingual Spanish use among new migrants or older foreign–born Hispanics, complete bilingualism among long settled immigrants and the children of immigrants, and the sole use of English and often some Spanglish and colloquial Spanish within long established Hispanic communities by the third generation and beyond. The children and grandchildren of immigrants often speak mostly English with some Spanish words and phrases thrown in.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b "B03002. Hispanic or Latino Origin by Race". 2007 American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-09-25.
  2. ^ a b "American FactFinder Help: Hispanic or Latino origin". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-10-05. For Census 2000, American Community Survey: People who identify with the terms "Hispanic" or "Latino" are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the Census 2000 or ACS questionnaire - "Mexican," "Puerto Rican," or "Cuban" - as well as those who indicate that they are "other Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino." Origin can be viewed as the heritage, nationality group, lineage, or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States. People who identify their origin as Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino may be of any race. 1990 Census of Population and Housing: A self-designated classification for people whose origins are from Spain, the Spanish-speaking countries of Central or South America, the Caribbean, or those identifying themselves generally as Spanish, Spanish-American, etc. Origin can be viewed as ancestry, nationality, or country of birth of the person or person's parents or ancestors prior to their arrival in the United States. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 625 (help)
  3. ^ "American FactFinder Help: Ethnic groups". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  4. ^ a b c Office of Management and Budget. "Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal Register Notice October 30, 1997". Retrieved 2008-01-11. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Grieco, Elizabeth M. "Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-27. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b Small, Lawrence M (2002-08-01). "Latino Legacies". Smithsonian Magazine. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-04-28. There was a Hispanic presence on the continent for more than 200 years before 13 colonies on the eastern coast declared their independence from England ... By 1607, when the British established their first successful settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, writes historian Bernard Bailyn, "Spain's American dominion extended nearly 8,000 miles, from Southern California to the Straits of Magellan...
  7. ^ a b "A Brief History of St. Augustine". City of St. Augustine. Retrieved 2008-04-28. Founded in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. Forty-two years before the English colonized Jamestown and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, the Spanish established at St. Augustine this nation's first enduring settlement.
  8. ^ a b "A Spanish Expedition Established St. Augustine in Florida". America's Library. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2008-04-28. On September 8, 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés landed on the shore of what is now called Matanzas Bay and began the founding of the Presidio of San Agustin. Later the settlement would be called St. Augustine, Florida. Built on the site of an ancient Native American village, and near the place where Ponce de Leon, the European discoverer of Florida, landed in 1513 in search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, it has been continually inhabited since its founding.
  9. ^ a b Francisco Lopez de Mendoza Grajales. "The Founding of St. Augustine, 1565". Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham University. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  10. ^ "Documents in Mexican American History". University of Houston. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
  11. ^ "Cuartocentennial of Colonization of New Mexico". New Mexico State University. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
  12. ^ "Oldest U.S. City — Infoplease.com". Retrieved 2008-11-21.
  13. ^ "Who are they?". Hispanic Research Inc. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
  14. ^ a b "Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity; Federal Register Notice October 30, 1997". Office of Management and Budget. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
  15. ^ a b "American FactFinder Help; Spanish/Hispanic/Latino". Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  16. ^ "White persons not Hispanic, percent, 2006". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-12-29. Hispanics or Latinos are those people who classified themselves in one of the specific Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino categories listed on the Census 2000 questionnaire -"Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano," "Puerto Rican", or "Cuban"-as well as those who indicate that they are "other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino." Persons who indicated that they are "other Spanish/Hispanic/Latino" include those whose origins are from Spain, the Spanish-speaking countries of Central or South America, the Dominican Republic or people identifying themselves generally as Spanish, Spanish-American, Hispanic, Hispano, Latino, and so on.
  17. ^ "A Cultural Identity". 1997-06-18. Retrieved 2006-12-27.
  18. ^ Gibson, Campbell (2002). "Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States". Working Paper Series No. 56. Retrieved 2006-12-07. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ "American Heritage Dictionary". Retrieved 2007-03-18.
  20. ^ United States Census Bureau. "U.S. Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic Origin Data". Retrieved 2007-03-18. Race and Hispanic origin are two separate concepts in the federal statistical system. People who are Hispanic may be of any race. People in each race group may be either Hispanic or Not Hispanic. Each person has two attributes, their race (or races) and whether or not they are Hispanic.
  21. ^ "U.S. Census form" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-30. (See question 7)
  22. ^ "B03001. Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin". 2006 American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
  23. ^ [1], [2], [3]
  24. ^ "Fact Sheet 2006 American Community Survey". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-06-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  25. ^ "US Census Press Releases". United States Census Bureau. 2008-07-16. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  26. ^ "T1. Population Estimates [10]; Data Set: 2007 Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  27. ^ "Census Bureau Projects Tripling of Hispanic and Asian Populations in 50 Years; Non-Hispanic Whites May Drop To Half of Total Population". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  28. ^ "Hispanic Population by State: 2006" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
  29. ^ "US Census Press Releases; More Than 300 Counties Now "Majority-Minority"". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
  30. ^ "Los Angeles County, California - ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates: 2006". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
  31. ^ "Detailed Hispanic Origin: 2006" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
  32. ^ a b Brittingham, Angela (2004). "Ancestry: 2000. Census 2000 Brief" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-13. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  33. ^ "New Mexico CultureNet - Cuartocentenario". New Mexico CultureNet. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
  34. ^ Tafoya, Sonya (2004-12-06). "Shades of Belonging" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. Retrieved 2008-05-07.
  35. ^ "B03002. HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY RACE". 2006 American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
  36. ^ "T4-2006. Hispanic or Latino By Race [15]". 2006 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-13.
  37. ^ "Technical Documentation for the Census 2000 Modified Race Data Summary File". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-05-14.
  38. ^ "04/13/1998 I'D LIKE THE WORLD TO BUY A COKE". The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
  39. ^ "Arturo Moreno - TIME". Time Inc. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
  40. ^ "Joseph Unanue". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-12-13.
  41. ^ a b c d The American Community-Hispanics: 2004
  42. ^ Lynching and Violence in America: Migrant Workers
  43. ^ press3b
  44. ^ Steven H. Wilson | Brown over "Other White": Mexican Americans' Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits | Law and History Review, 21.1 | The History Cooperative
  45. ^ Digital History
  46. ^ How Immigration is Rousing the Zealots - TIME
  47. ^ Democracy Now! | FBI Statistics Show Anti-Latino Hate Crimes on the Rise
  48. ^ a b Levenson, Michael (2007-12-10). "GOP hopefuls beckon Hispanics in debate - The Boston Globe". The Boston Globe. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
  49. ^ Daniel Dombey (2008-03-22). "Obama gets another ally - Politics - United States - United Kingdom - International - Obama running for the White House - Africa". Retrieved 2008-06-08. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ AFP: Obama dominates McCain among Hispanics: poll
  51. ^ http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-11-06-hispanics_N.htm
  52. ^ http://www.miamiherald.com/news/politics/campaign-2008/story/759005.html
  53. ^ http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/politics/6099797.html
  54. ^ "National Hispanic Media Coalition: About Us". Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  55. ^ Noriega, Chon. "Politics and Culture: Making a Difference". Connecticut College. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  56. ^ "United States - Selected Population Profile in the United States (Hispanic or Latino (of any race))". 2006 American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
  57. ^ a b "B16006. LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME BY ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH FOR THE POPULATION 5 YEARS AND OVER (HISPANIC OR LATINO)". 2006 American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-06-12. [There were 39.5 million Hispanic and Latino Americans aged 5 or more in 2006. 8.5 million of them, or 22%, spoke only English at home, and another 156,000, or 0.4%, spoke neither English nor Spanish at home. The other 30.8 million, or 78%, spoke Spanish at home. Of these, 3.7 million spoke no English, while the overwhelming majority, 27.2 million did, at these levels: 15.5 million "very well", 5.8 million "well", and 5.9 million "not well". These 27.2 million represented 69% of all (39.5 million) Hispanic and Latino Americans aged five or over in 2006, while the 3.7 million monolingual Spanish–speakers represented 9%.]
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