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Spaniards

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"Spaniard" redirects here. For other uses, see Spaniard (disambiguation).
Spanish people
Pueblo español

1st row: Isabella of Castile • Ferdinand II of Aragon • Cortés • Loyola • Charles V • Teresa of Ávila
2nd row: Cervantes • Francisco Goya • José María de Pereda • Rosalía de Castro • Pérez Galdós • Leopoldo Alas

3rd row: Gaudí • Picasso • Dalí • Juan Carlos I of Spain • Antonio Banderas • Rafael Nadal
Regions with significant populations
Spain Spain 40 million[citation needed]
(Spanish descent only)
 Argentina25 mill (>30 mill1)[1]
Brazil Brazil15 mill (>20 mill4)[2]
 Mexico15 mill (c. 75 mill1)
 Chile9.5 mill (c. 15 mill2)
 Colombia8.4 mill (>42 mill1)[3]
Cuba Cuba7 mill (c. 10 mill2)[4]
Venezuela Venezuela5.6 mill (c. 22 mill2)[5]
Peru Peru5.4 mill (c. 17 mill2)[6]
 Philippines5 mill[7]
Costa Rica Costa Rica3.2 mill (c. 4 mill2)[8]
 Puerto Rico3.2 mill[9]
United States USA2,487,092 (>35 mill3)
[10]
Uruguay Uruguay1.8 mill (>3 mill1)[11]
 France1.5 mill[12]
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic1.5 mill (c. 9.1 mill2)[13]
Bolivia Bolivia1.3 mill (c. 4.4 mill2)[14]
Ecuador Ecuador0.9 mill (c. 9.5 mill2)[15]
Nicaragua Nicaragua0.9 mill (c. 4.7 mill2)[16]
 El Salvador0.6 mill (c. 6.7 mill2)[17]
Guatemala Guatemala0.5 mill (c. 7.3 mill2)[18]
United Kingdom United Kingdom0.33 mill (inc. through Latin American ancestries[citation needed]
Panama Panama0.3 mill (c. 2.5 mill2)[19]
Paraguay Paraguay0.3 mill (c. 4.3 mill2)[citation needed]
Honduras Honduras0.2 mill (c. 6.7 mill2)[citation needed]
Germany Germany130,000[20]
Switzerland Switzerland84,000[citation needed]
Australia Australia75,237 (c. 50,0001)[21]
Canada Canada66,545 (213,1051)
[22]
Belize Belize45,000[23]
Belgium Belgium43,000[24]
Languages
Spanish, and other Languages of Spain.
Religion
Christianity (Predominantly Roman Catholic) and others, including atheists.
Related ethnic groups
Portuguese, French, Italians, Sephardi Jews.
#Including those of mixed Spanish and other European ancestry, mestizos and/or mulattos.
  1. Including mestizos and/or mulattos.
  2. Including those of mixed Spanish and other European ancestry, other Hispanics of direct Spanish descent, and Spanish-descended mestizos and mulattos.
  3. Including Brazilians of mixed Spanish and other European ancestry, and Spanish-descended mestizos and/or mulattos.
  4. Including Filipino mestizos.

Spanish people or Spaniards are a nation or ethnic group native to Spain, in the Iberian Peninsula of southwestern Europe. They are often considered an amalgam of different ethnic groups, rather than an ethnic group by itself. They are usually classified as one of the Latin European peoples and have somewhat varied origins, due to the long history of migrations in and out of the Iberian Peninsula. Substantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants also exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America.

Historical background

The earliest modern humans inhabiting Spain are believed to have been Paleolithic peoples that may have arrived in the Iberian Peninsula as early as 35,000-40,000 years ago. In more recent times the Iberians are believed to have arrived or developed in the region between the 4th millennium BC and the 3rd millennium BC, initially settling along the Mediterranean coast.

Celtic tribes arrived in Iberia between the 9th century BC and the 6th century BC. Some of those tribes in north-central Spain, which had cultural contact with the Iberians, are called Celtiberians. In addition, a group known as the Tartessians and later Turdetanians inhabited southwestern Spain and who are believed to have developed a separate civilization of Phoenician influence. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. The Second Punic War between the Carthaginians and Romans was fought mainly in what is now Spain and Portugal.[25]

The Roman Republic annexed Iberia during the 2nd century BC and transformed most of the region into a series of Latin-speaking provinces. As a result of Roman colonization, the majority of local languages, with the exception of Basque, stem from the Vulgar Latin that was spoken in Hispania (Roman Iberia), which evolved into the modern languages of the Iberian peninsula, including Castilian, which became the unifying language of Spain, and is now known in most countries as Spanish. Hispania (including Spain, but also Portugal) emerged as an important part of the Roman Empire and produced notable historical figures such as Trajan, Hadrian and Seneca.

The Germanic Vandals and their subordinates the Iranic Alans arrived around 409 AD, but were displaced to North Africa by another Germanic tribe, the Visigoths who conquered the region around 415 AD and became the dominant power in Iberia for three centuries. The Vandals may have given their name to the region, which was originally "Vandalucia" or land of the Vandals (which would be the source of Al-Andalus the Arab name of this Iberian region). Iberian-Roman culture eventually romanized the Visigoths and other tribes. Another Germanic tribe, the Suebi (including the Buri), who arrived at roughly the same time as the Vandals, became established in the old North western Roman province of Gallaecia a kingdom which survived until late 6th century when it too was integrated by the Visigoths.

In 711, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by Muslim Arab-Berbers, popularly known as the Moors, who conquered nearly all the peninsula except the Kingdom of Asturias in the very northern part and subsequently ruled part of the region as Al-Andalus, but were driven south during their reign, ruling areas from between three to nearly eight centuries, ending with their defeat in 1492. These Muslim invaders were mainly of Berber origin with prominent Arab tribal leaders mixed in and they converted many locals to Islam to the point that at certain points in time Muslims outnumbered Christians. Muslims of Hispanic origin were generally known as Muladis (or Muwalladin in Arabic), "those born of foreign parentage" (though the idea "foreign" in this case meant "foreign" to the Arab and Berbers).

In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, so that muladies comprised the majority of the population of Islamic Spain by the century's end.[26] Muslim Iberia was known as Al-Andalus. Ultimately, most Muslims and Sephardi Jews were either converted to Catholicism or expelled after the Christian reconquest (Reconquista). Between 1609 and 1614, approximately 300,000 Moriscos—new Christians converted from Islam who continued to speak, write, and dress like Muslims—were forcibly expelled from Spain.[27]

The union of the Christian Kingdoms of Castille and Aragon and the conquest of Granada led to the formation of the Spanish state as we know it today and thus to the development of Spanish identity in the form of one people. The Canary Islands had an Indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians and linguists.

Emigration

In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports. They were joined by 450,000 in the next century.[28] Since the conquest of Mexico and Peru these two regions became the principal destinations of Spanish migrants in the 16th century.[29] In the period 1850-1950, 3.5 million Spanish left for the Americas, particularly Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Cuba.[30] From 1840 to 1890, as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated to Venezuela.[31] 94,000 Spaniards chose to go to the Algeria in the last years of the 19th century, and 250,000 Spaniards lived in Morocco at the beginning of the 20th century.[30]

By the end of the Spanish Civil War, some 500,000 Spanish Republican refugees had crossed the border into France.[32] From 1961 to 1974, at the height of the guest worker programs in Western Europe, about 100,000 Spaniards emigrated each year.[30]

Ethnicities and regions

Spain's regions and nationalities

Valencian girls in historical costumes.

Spain itself consists of various regional populations including the Castilians[33], the Catalans, Valencians and Balearics (speakers of Catalan, a distinct Romance language in eastern Spain of the Galo-Iberic branch), the Navarrese, the Basques (people inhabiting the Basque country), and the Galicians, who speak a language which is the origin of Portuguese. Regional diversity is important to many Spaniards, and some regions also have strong local identities and dialects such as Asturias, Aragon, the Canary Islands, León, Andalusia and Extremadura.

The Roma

Spain is home to around 700,000 Spanish-Roma (Gitanos). Roma are a formerly-nomadic group, which spread across Western Asia, North Africa and Europe, reaching Spain in the 15th century. Gitanos, for a number of historical and cultural reasons are not considered a separate or "foreign" population in Spain, but a distinct ethnicity which overlaps with the wider Spanish ethnicity. Indeed, Gitanos play an important role in particularly Andalusian folklore, music and culture. There are no official statistics on the Gitano population in Spain. Estimates range from 600 000 to 700 000, making Spain, together with Romania and Bulgaria, home to one of the largest Roma communities in Europe. Over 40% of Gitanos live in the region of Andalusia, where they have traditionally enjoyed a higher degree of integration than in the rest of the country. A number of Spanish "gitanos" also live in Southern France, especially in the region of Perpignan.

Ancestry

The ancestry of the peoples in Iberia is largely consistent with geographic position, the Iberian Peninsula being located on the extreme southwest of Europe. There are clear connections with the Mediterranean peoples as well as with those of Atlantic and Western Europe.

The Paleolithic and Neolithic basis of modern Iberian ancestry

A 2007 European-wide study including Spanish Basques and Valencian Spaniards, found Iberian populations to cluster the furthest from other continental groups, implying that Iberia holds the most ancient European ancestry. In this study, the most prominent genetic stratification in Europe was found to run from the north to the south-east, while another important axis of differentiation runs east-west across the continent. It also found, despite the differences, that all Europeans are closely related.[34]

Previous Y-chromosome and mtDNA analysis[35] already pointed to Paleolithic ancestry among populations in the Iberian Peninsula. Although this methodology does not provide strong inferences on genetic population structure, it is useful in tracing parts of the routes of migration in the populating of Europe. Both Y-chromosome haplogroups R1b and Mtdna haplogroup H, reach frequencies above 60% in most of Iberia, R1b peaking at 90% in the Basque region.[36] This shows an ancestral bond between Iberia and the rest of western Europe, and in particular with Atlantic Europe, which share high frequencies of these haplogroups. Y-chromosome and mtDNA analysis seems to support the theory according to which founder populations in northern Iberia colonized the rest of western Europe at the end of the last glaciation.[37]

In fact, according to one article, the main components in the European genomes appear to derive from ancestors whose features were similar to those of modern Basques and Near Easterners, with average values greater than 35% for both these parental populations, regardless of whether or not molecular information is taken into account. The lowest degree of both Basque and Near Eastern admixture is found in Finland, whereas the highest values are, respectively, 70% in Spain and more than 60% in the Balkans.[38][39]

Autosomal studies using a small number of classical genetic markers, supported by more recent analysis of Microsatellite data, have lent support for a large Neolithic element in the European genome, supporting the demic diffusion model from the ancient Near East. This Neolithic component has also been detected at substantial levels in Spain, but at greatly reduced levels to those detected in other European countries to the north and east. Broad gradients across Europe, largely on South East/North West cline using a small number of classical genetic markers would thus link the populations of Western Europe (including Iberia) by a common "paleolithic" ancestry and those of eastern (and particularly south eastern) Europe by a common "neolithic" ancestry[38] Nevertheless the demic diffusion model remains controversial, to the degree that studies of ancient Mtdna have been interpreted as pointing to the absence of a Neolithic contribution in modern European populations.[citation needed]

Other historical influences

Haplogroup composition of the ancient Iberians was very similar to that found in modern Iberian Peninsula populations, suggesting a long-term genetic continuity since pre-Roman times[4][5]. Nonetheless, The ancestry of modern Spaniards has also been influenced in a smaller degree by the many peoples

There exists a number of studies which focus on the genetic impact of the centuries of Muslim rule in the Iberian peninsula (al-Andalus) on the genetic make up of the Iberian population. Recent studies agree that there is a genetic relationship between (particularly southern) Iberia and North Africa as a result of this period of history. Iberia is the only region in Europe with a presence of the typically North West African Y-chromosome haplotypes E-M81[40][41] and Haplotype Va[42]. A thorough Y-chromosome analysis of the Iberian peninsula reveal that haplotype E-M81 surpasses frequencies of 10% in Southern Iberia.[43]As for Mtdna analysis (Mitochondrial DNA), Iberia has much higher frequencies of typically North African Haplogroup U6 than those generally observed in Europe.[44][45][46]. North African ancestry in Iberia (Algarve and Alentejo, Portugal) is largely on the maternal side where the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia (given that the average frequency of U6 is 10% in NW Africa compared with 1.8% in Iberia) can be estimated at 8% [47][48].

This region also has the highest frequency of haplogroup L of Sub-Saharan origin (especially in southern Portugal and to a lesser extent Andalusia) mostly as a result of Berber colonisation and, to a lesser extent African slavery, both during and after Muslim rule.[49][50]

Nevertheless, the North African element in modern day Iberians' ancestry is evidently small compared to their pre-Islamic ancestral basis.[51][52] [53] [54] [55] A study (published 2007) using 6,501 unrelated Y-chromosome samples from 81 populations found that: “Considering both these E-M78 sub-haplogroups (E-V12, E-V22, E-V65) and the E-M81 haplogroup, the contribution of northern African lineages to the entire male gene pool of Iberia is 5.6%. ”[56]

A European wide study including Spaniards states: No significant correlation is apparent between North African admixture and geography. Genetic exchanges across the Mediterranean Sea, and especially in its western-most part where the geographic distance between continents is smallest (Spain), seem to have been limited or very limited, establishing the North African contribution at 2.5/3.4%. [6] [7]

The Canary Islands

The inhabitants of the Canary Islands, hold a gene pool that is halfway between the Iberians and the ancient native population, the Guanches (a proto-berber population), although with a major Iberian contribution. Guanche genetic markers have also been found, at low frequencies, in peninsular Spain, probably as a result of slavery and/or later immigration from the Canary Islands.[57]

Modern immigration

The population of Spain is becoming increasingly diverse due to recent immigration. Spain now has among the highest per capita immigration rates in the world and the second highest absolute net migration in the World (after the USA).[58] and immigrants now make up about 10% of the population. Since 2000, Spain has absorbed more than 3 million immigrants, with thousands more arriving each year.[59] Immigrant population now tops over 4.5 million.[60] They come mainly from Europe, Latin America and North Africa.[61](see Immigration to Spain).

Global Genetic Maps about the Spanish

For two recent autosomal genetic maps of the Spanish see:

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/13/science/13visual.html?_r=3&ref=science&oref=slogin&oref=slogin&oref=slogin

http://www.gnxp.com/blog/2008/08/genetic-map-of-europe-again.php

For lineage-related-markers genetic maps of the Spanish see:

http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mcdonald/WorldHaplogroupsMaps.pdf

Language

Main article: Spanish language

Languages spoken in Spain include Spanish (castellano or español) (74%), Catalan (català, called valencià in the Valencian Community) (17%), Galician (galego) (7%), and Basque (euskara) (2%).[62] Other languages are Asturian (asturianu), Aranese Gascon (aranés), Aragonese (aragonés), and Leonese, each with their own various dialects. Spanish is the official state language, although the other languages are co-official in a number of autonomous communities.

Peninsular Spanish is largely considered to be divided into two main dialects: Castilian Spanish (spoken in the northern half of the country) and Andalusian Spanish (spoken mainly in Andalusia). However, a large part of Spain, including Madrid, Extremadura, Murcia, and Castilla-la Mancha, speak local dialects known as "transitional dialects" between Andalusian and Castilian Spanish.[63] The Canary Islands also have a distinct dialect of Castilian Spanish which is very close to Caribbean Spanish. Linguistically, the Spanish language is a Romance language and is one of the aspects (including laws and general "ways of life") that makes Spaniards to be labelled a Latin people. The strong Arabic influence on the language (nearly 4,000 words are of Arabic origin, many nouns and few verbs)[64] and the independent evolution of the language itself through history, most notably the Basque influence at the formative stage of Castilian Romance, partially explain its difference from other Romance languages. The Basque language left a strong imprint on Spanish both linguistically and phonetically. Other changes in Spanish have come from borrowings from English and French, although English influence is stronger in Latin America than in Spain.

The number of speakers of Spanish as a mother tongue is roughly 35.6 million, while the vast majority of other groups in Spain such as the Galicians, Catalans, and Basques also speak Spanish as a first or second language, which boosts the number of Spanish speakers to the overwhelming majority of Spain's population of 45.9 million. Mexico has the largest Spanish-speaking population in the world with approximately 100 million speakers.[65]

Spanish was exported to the Americas due to over three centuries of Spanish colonial rule starting with the arrival of Christopher Columbus to Santo Domingo in 1492. Spanish is spoken natively by over 400 million people and spans across most countries of the Americas; from the Southwestern United States in North America down to Tierra del Fuego, the most southernly region of South America in Chile and Argentina. A variety of the language, known as Judæo-Spanish or Ladino (or Haketia in Morocco), is still spoken by descendants of Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews) who fled Spain following a decree of expulsion of Moors and Jews in 1492. Also, a Spanish creole language known as Chabacano is spoken by less than 1 million people in the Philippines, which developed from the mix of Spanish and native Tagalog and Cebuano languages during Spain's rule of the country through Mexico from 1565 to 1898.

In Russia, the Spaniards who moved there during World War II speak a mix of Russian and Spanish, while some speak Catalan. In Montreal, Quebec, Canada, many Spanish-speaking immigrants relocated in the city adapted a mixed language Franspanol, while they're able to speak French and in addition, English. And in Japan, Latin American descendants of Japanese whom immigrated to the country by the Nikkeijin "right to return" laws are more proficient in Spanish than Japanese.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Spain

According to several sources (Spanish official polls and others, www.ine.es), about 76% self-identify as Christian Catholics, about 2% with another religious faith, and about 19% identify as non-believers or atheists.

Hundreds of millions of Spanish descendants can be found throughout the Hispanic countries of Latin America in the form of criollos (Spaniards born in the Americas), mestizos (mixed Spanish/Amerindian), mulatos (mixed Spanish/African) or triracial (Spanish/African/Amerindian). In the United States, the number of Mexican-Americans represent a significant portion of the Spanish descended population, as over 70% of the population of Mexico have some Spanish ancestry. See Demographics of Mexico.

File:Imperio Esp total.PNG
An anachronous map of the Spanish Empire (1492-1975). Red - actual possessions; Pink - explorations, areas of influence and trade and claims of sovereignty; Purple - the Portuguese Empire during the period of the Iberian Union (1581-1640). The empires remained legally separate during the Union, but the Spanish Empire included the Portuguese Empire de facto.

On a smaller scale, in addition to approximately 17,000 Spanish citizens in the Philippines, there is also a small minority of Filipinos of Spanish descent.

Spanish heritage in the Americas

A vast majority of people living in Latin America have at least some Spanish ancestry.

Spanish make-up in Latin America may be mixed with different ethnicities from different places around the world: For example, in Mexico it is largely mixed Native American ancestry, in Colombia it is mixed with Native American and African ancestry, in the Dominican Republic, Cuba and Puerto Rico it is mixed withV

File:Mexico-city-cathedral.jpg
Mexico city cathedral, a legacy of the Spanish Empire

Taino and African, in Argentina it is mixed with other European groups, such as the Italian, the Germans, and the Irish, and in Chile it is mixed mainly with both Native Americans and other European and Middle-eastern groups.

Spanish culture had even greater impact than the mere arrival of Spaniards in the Americas. This can be seen in the fact that Spanish is spoken as official language in almost all, if not in all, countries conquered by the Spanish Reign, and the Roman Catholic religion is the main religion in the region. There are other matters, such as architecture and politics, that show the major influence that Spain has had in Latin America. In the United States, more than 15% of the population is of Hispanic origins, with more than 40 million people who are partly or even fully of Spanish ancestry.


Spanish heritage in Africa

See also


Spanish Identities

Within the broader Spanish identity are long standing regional identities within Spain:

Spanish nationality and regional movements

Main article: Nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain
Further information: Nationalities and regions of Spain

Languages of Spain

Main article: Languages of Spain

Official languages

Unofficial languages

Ancient Spanish peoples

People with Spanish ancestry

Footnotes

  1. ^ Argentina: Ethnic groups
  2. ^ Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación.
  3. ^ Colombia: Ethnic groups
  4. ^ Template:Es icon "Poblacion Por Color de la Piel y Grupos de Edades, Segun Zona de Residencia y Sexo".
  5. ^ "Venezuela". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-08-25. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ [1]
  7. ^ Peru: Ethnic groups
  8. ^ The Costa Rican people
  9. ^ Puerto Rico: Ethnic groups
  10. ^ "Ancestry 2000: Census 2000 brief" (pdf). U.S. Census Bureau. p. 5. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  11. ^ Uruguay: Ethnic groups
  12. ^ "3,7 millions de musulmans en France, Les vrais chiffres". L'Express. 4 December 2003. Retrieved 2007-07-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Dominican Republic: Ethnic groups
  14. ^ Bolivia: Ethnic groups
  15. ^ Ecuador: Ethnic groups
  16. ^ Nicaragua: Ethnic groups
  17. ^ El Salvador: Ethnic groups
  18. ^ Guatemala Introduction
  19. ^ Panama: Ethnic groups
  20. ^ Relations between Spain and Germany
  21. ^ "Ancestry by Birthplace of Parent(s)" (PDF). New South Wales Community Relations Commission. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  22. ^ "Population by selected ethnic origins, by province and territory (2001 Census)". Statistics Canada, Canada's National Statistics Agency. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  23. ^ "Mestizo location in Belize; Location". Retrieved 2008-02-14.
  24. ^ Belgium: Stock of foreign population by country of nationality, 2001 to 2004
  25. ^ "Ethnographic map of Pre-Roman Iberia". Luís Fraga da Silva - Associação Campo Arqueológico de Tavira, Tavira, Portugal. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  26. ^ Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick
  27. ^ Morisco -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  28. ^ Axtell, James (September/October 1991), "The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America", Humanities, 12 (5): 12–18, retrieved 2008-10-08 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ^ Migration to Latin America
  30. ^ a b c Spain: Forging an Immigration Policy, Migration Information Source
  31. ^ "The Spanish of the Canary Islands".
  32. ^ Spanish Civil War fighters look back, BBC News, February 23, 2003
  33. ^ "Anexo:Comunidades autónomas españolas por población". Spanish Wikipedia. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  34. ^ Measuring European Population Stratification using Microarray Genotype Data [2]
  35. ^ World Haplogroups Maps
  36. ^ Dupanloup, Isabelle; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès; Barbujani, Guido (2004-03-24), "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography" (PDF), Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21 (7), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1361–1372, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135, ISSN 0737-4038 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).(PDF)
  37. ^ Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M; Oefner, Peter J; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M; Underhill, Peter A (2004-07-28), "Summarized Percent Frequencies of R1b, R1a, I1b* (xM26), E3b1 and J2e", European Journal of Human Genetics, 12, London: Nature Publishing Group: 855–863, doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ^ a b Dupanloup, Isabelle; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès; Barbujani, Guido (2004-03-24), "Weighted Average Across Loci, and Standard Deviations (SD), of the Estimated Contributions of 4 Parental Populations to European Populations", Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21 (7), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1361–1372, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135, ISSN 0737-4038 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ^ Dupanloup, Isabelle; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès; Barbujani, Guido (2004-03-24), "Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans Populations to European Populations", Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21 (7), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1361–1372, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135, ISSN 0737-4038 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ "Phylogeny and frequency distributions of Hg E and its main subclades". The American Journal of Human Genetics. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  41. ^ "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J". The American Journal of Human Genetics. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  42. ^ "North African Berber and Arab influences in the western Mediterranean revealed by Y-chromosome DNA haplotypes". PubMed.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  43. ^ Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography
  44. ^ "Haplogroup U6 is present at frequencies ranging from 0 to 7% in the various Iberian populations, with an average of 1.8%. Given that the frequency of U6 in NW Africa is 10%, the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia can be estimated at 18%. This is larger than the contribution estimated with Y-chromosomal lineages (7%) (Bosch et al. 2001). " Joining the Pillars of Hercules: mtDNA Sequences Show Multidirectional Gene Flow in the Western Mediterranean (2003)
  45. ^ "Although the absolute value of observed U6 frequency in Iberia is low, it reveals a considerable North African female contribution, if we keep in mind that haplogroup U6 is not very common in North Africa itself and virtually absent in the rest of Europe. Indeed, because the range of variation in western North Africa is 4-28%, the estimated minimum input is 8.54%. "African female heritage in Iberia: a reassessment of mtDNA lineage distribution in present times (2005)
  46. ^ "Our results clearly reinforce, extend, and clarify the preliminary clues of an important mtDNA contribution from northwest Africa into the Iberian Peninsula (Côrte-Real et al., 1996; Rando et al., 1998; Flores et al., 2000a; Rocha et al., 1999)(...) Our own data allow us to make minimal estimates of the maternal African pre-Neolithic, Neolithic, and/or recent slave trade input into Iberia. For the former, we consider only the mean value of the U6 frequency in northern African populations, excluding Saharans, Tuareg, and Mauritanians (16%), as the pre-Neolithic frequency in that area, and the present frequency in the whole Iberian Peninsula (2.3%) as the result of the northwest African gene flow at that time. The value obtained (14%) could be as high as 35% using the data of Corte-Real et al. (1996), or 27% with our north Portugal sample." Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe (2003)
  47. ^ "Haplogroup U6 is present at frequencies ranging from 0 to 7% in the various Iberian populations , with an average of 1.8%. Given that the frequency of U6 in NW Africa is 10%, the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia can be estimated at 18%" Joining the Pillars of Hercules: mtDNA Sequences Show Multidirectional Gene Flow in the Western Mediterranean
  48. ^ "Although the absolute value of observed U6 frequency in Iberia is low, it reveals a considerable North African female contribution, if we keep in mind that haplogroup U6 is not very common in North Africa itself and virtually absent in the rest of Europe. Indeed, because the range of variation in western North Africa is 4-28%, the estimated minimum input is 8.54%. + "African female heritage in Iberia: a reassessment of mtDNA lineage distribution in present times
  49. ^ "Sub-Saharan DNA admixture in Europe". Wikipedia. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  50. ^ "African female heritage in Iberia: a reassessment of mtDNA lineage distribution in present times". PubMed.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  51. ^ Isabelle Dupanloup, Giorgio Bertorelle, Lounès Chikhi, Guido Barbujani (2004) Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans, Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 (7), p. 1361-1372.
  52. ^ Joining the Pillars of Hercules: mtDNA Sequences Show Multidirectional Gene Flow in the Western Mediterranean
  53. ^ Oxford Journals: Molecular Biology and Evolution
  54. ^ Wells Family DNA Project Haplogroup Definitions - R
  55. ^ PBase.com
  56. ^ Fluvio Cruciani, Et al. ,"Tracing Past Human Male Movements in Northern/Eastern Africa and Eurasia: New Clues from Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12", Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 24, Number 6: June 2007, Oxford University Press, Pp. 1307
  57. ^ "A tale of aborigines, conquerors and slaves: Alu insertion polymorphisms and the peopling of Canary Islands". PubMed.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25. {{cite web}}: Text "Other theories, however, suggest that the native Guanche population may have been of ancient Nordic or Celtic origin, but this in itself is up to dispute. Despite this, the genes of the Guanche people would to some extent be present, albeit on a small scale, in the mainstream Spanish populace." ignored (help)
  58. ^ Eurostat - Population in Europe in 2005
  59. ^ Spain: Immigrants Welcome
  60. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales
  61. ^ "Spain attracts record levels of immigrants seeking jobs and sun". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  62. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Spain
  63. ^ "Lenguas de España". Proel.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  64. ^ The importance of this influence can be seen in words like admiral (almirante), algebra, alchemy and alcohol, to note just a few obvious examples, which entered other European languages, like French, English, German, from Arabic via medieval Spanish. Modern Spanish has more than 100 000 words.[3]
  65. ^ "Spanish for Cultural Literacy Online" (html). University of Illinois at Springfield. Retrieved 2007-04-25.

References

  • Castro, Americo. Willard F. King and Selma Margaretten, trans. The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1980. ISBN 0520041771.
  • Chapman, Robert. Emerging Complexity: The Later Pre-History of South-East Spain, Iberia, and the West Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521232074.
  • Goodwin, Godfrey. Islamic Spain. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1990. ISBN 0877016925.
  • Harrison, Richard. Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians, and Greeks. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1988. ISBN 0500021112.
  • James, Edward (ed.). Visigothic Spain: New Approaches. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980. ISBN 0198225431.
  • Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440 – 1870. London: Picador, 1997. ISBN 033035437X.
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