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Mountain Meadows Massacre

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Mountain Meadows massacre
The cover of the August 13, 1859 issue of Harper's Weekly illustrating the killing field as described by Brevet Major Carleton "one too horrible and sickening for language to describe. Human skeletons, disjointed bones, ghastly skulls and the hair of women were scattered in frightful profusion over a distance of two miles." "the remains were not buried at all until after they had been dismembered by the wolves and the flesh stripped from the bones, and then only such bones were buried as lay scattered along nearest the road".
LocationMountain Meadows, Utah Territory
DateSeptember 7–September 111857
WeaponsGuns, Bowie knives
Deaths100–140 members of the Fancher-Baker wagon train of Arkansan emigrants to California
Injured<17
PerpetratorsNauvoo Legion (Local Iron County Mormon Militia), Paiute Native American auxiliaries

Template:MMMeadowsSeriesUnderInfoBox

The Mountain Meadows massacre involved a mass slaughter of the Fancher-Baker emigrant wagon train at Mountain Meadows in the Utah Territory by the local Mormon militia in September 1857. It began as an attack, quickly turned into a siege, and eventually culminated on September 11, 1857, in the execution of the unarmed emigrants after their surrender. All of the party were killed, except for a few children under 8 years old. Some infants were killed while in their mothers arms.[1] After the massacre, the corpses of the victims were left decomposing for two years on the open plain[2] , their children were distributed to local Mormon families, and many of their possessions auctioned off at the LDS Cedar City tithing office.[3]

The Arkansas emigrants were traveling to California shortly before the Utah War started. Mormons throughout the Utah Territory had been mustered to fight the United States Army, which they believed was intending to destroy them as a people. [citation needed]

The emigrants stopped to rest and regroup their approximately 800 head of cattle at Mountain Meadows, a valley within the Iron County Military District of the Nauvoo Legion (the popular designation for the Mormon militia of the Utah Territory). [4]

Initially intending to orchestrate an Indian massacre,[5] Isaac C. Haight and John D. Lee, conspired to lead militiamen disguised as Native Americans along with a contingent of Paiute tribesmen in an attack. The emigrants fought back and a siege ensued. When the Mormons discovered that they had been identified as the attacking force by the emigrants, Col. William H. Dame, head of the Iron County Brigade of the Utah militia, ordered their annihilation.[6] Intending to leave no witnesses of Mormon complicity in the siege and also intending to prevent reprisals that would complicate the Utah War, militiamen induced the emigrants to surrender and give up their weapons. After escorting the emigrants out of their hasty fortification, the militiamen and their tribesmen auxiliaries executed approximately 120 men, women and children.[7] Seventeen younger children were spared.

Investigations, interrupted by the U.S. Civil War, resulted in nine indictments in 1874. Only John D. Lee was tried, and after two trials, he was convicted. On March 23 1877 a firing squad executed Lee at the massacre site.

Background

Main article: Fancher party's and Mormons' backgrounds and the Mountain Meadows massacre
Brigham Young
LDS Church president,
deposed governor and
American Indian superintendent of
the Utah Territory,
regent of the pre-millennial "Kingdom of God"

In early 1857, several groups of emigrants from the northwestern Arkansas region started their trek to California, joining up on the way to form a group known as the Fancher-Baker party. The groups were mostly from Marion, Crawford, Carroll, and Johnson counties in Arkansas, and had assembled into a wagon train at Beller's Stand, south of Harrison, Arkansas to emigrate to southern California. This group was initially referred to as both the Baker train and the Perkins train, but after being joined by other Arkansas trains and making its way west, was soon called the Fancher train (or party) after "Colonel" Alexander Fancher who, having already made the journey to California twice before, had become its main leader.[8] By contemporary standards the Fancher party was prosperous, carefully organized, and well-equipped for the journey.[9] They were subsequently joined along the way by families and individuals from other states, including Missouri.[10] This group was relatively wealthy, and planned to restock its supplies in Salt Lake City, as did most wagon trains at the time. The party reached Salt Lake City with about 120 members. In Salt Lake, a rumor spread that Parley P. Pratt's widow recognized one of the party as being present at her husband's murder.[11]

For the decade prior to the Fancher party's arrival there, Utah Territory existed as a theocracy or theodemocracy led by Brigham Young. As part of his vision of a pre-millennial "Kingdom of God", Young established colonies along the California Trail and Old Spanish Trail, where Mormon officials governed by "lay[ing] the axe at the root of the tree of sin and iniquity", while preserving individual rights.[12] Two of the southern-most establishments were Parowan and Cedar City, led respectively by Stake Presidents William H. Dame and Isaac C. Haight. Haight and Dame were, in addition, the senior regional military leaders of the Mormon militia. During the period just before the massacre, known as the Mormon Reformation, Mormon teachings were dramatic and strident. The religion had undergone a period of intense persecution in the American midwest, and faithful Mormons moved west to escape persecution in midwestern towns.

Escalating tensions

George A. Smith
Apostle who met the Fancher-Baker party before touring Parowan and neighboring settlements prior to the massacre
Main article: War hysteria preceding the Mountain Meadows massacre

The Mountain Meadows massacre was caused in part by events relating to the Utah War, an 1857 deployment toward the Utah Territory of the United States Army, whose arrival there ended up being peaceful. In the summer of 1857, however, the Mormons expected an all-out invasion of apocalyptic significance. From July to September 1857, Mormon leaders and their followers prepared for a siege that could have ended up similar to the seven-year Bleeding Kansas problem occuring at the time. Mormons were required to stockpile grain, and were enjoined against selling grain to emigrants for use as cattle feed. As far-off Mormon colonies retreated, Parowan and Cedar City became isolated and vulnerable outposts. Brigham Young sought to enlist the help of Indian tribes in fighting the "Americans", encouraging them to steal cattle from emigrant trains, and to join Mormons in fighting the approaching army.[13]

In August 1857, Mormon apostle George A. Smith, of Parowan, set out on a tour of southern Utah, instructing Mormons to stockpile grain. Scholars have asserted that Smith's tour, speeches, and personal actions contributed to the fear and tension in these communities, and influenced the decision to attack and destroy the Baker-Fancher emigrant train near Mountain Meadows, Utah. He met with many of the eventual participants in the massacre, including W. H. Dame, Isaac Haight, John D. Lee and Chief Jackson, leader of a band of Pah-Utes.[14] He noted that the militia was organized and ready to fight, and that some of them were eager to "fight and take vengeance for the cruelties that had been inflicted upon us in the States."[15] While on his return trip to Salt Lake City, Smith camped near the Fancher party on the 25th at Corn Creek, (near present-day Kanosh, Utah) 70 miles north of Parowan. They had traveled the 165 south from Salt Lake City and Jacob Hamblin suggested that the Fanchers stop and rest their cattle at Mountain Meadows which was adjacent to his homestead. Brevet Major Carleton's report records Jacob Hamblin's account that the train was alleged to have poisoned a spring near Corn Creek (near present-day Kanosh, Utah) that killed 18 head of cattle and resulted in the deaths of two or three people (including the son of Mr Robinson) who ate the dead cattle. Most witnesses said that the Fanchers were in general a peaceful party whose members behaved well along the trail. Among Smith's party were a number of Paiute Indian chiefs from the Mountain Meadows area. When Smith returned to Salt Lake, Brigham Young met with these leaders on September 1 1857 and encouraged them to fight against the "Americans" in the anticipated clash with the U.S. Army. They were also "given" all of the livestock then on the road to California, which included that belonging to the Fancher party. The Indian chiefs were reluctant, and at least one objected they had previously been told not to steal, and declined the offer.[16] Some scholars theorize, however, that the leaders returned to Mountain Meadows and participated in the massacre.[citation needed] However, it is uncertain whether they would have had time to do so.[citation needed]

The wagon train may have been joined by a group of eleven miners and plainsmen who called themselves "Missouri Wildcats," some of whom reportedly taunted, vandalized and "caused trouble" for Mormons and Native Americans along the route (by some accounts claiming that they had the gun that "shot the guts out of Old Joe Smith"[17]) and stories of this spread through Mormon communities.[18] However, it is uncertain whether the Missouri Wildcat group stayed with the slow-moving Fancher party after leaving Salt Lake City,[19] or even existed.[20] Either way, just a few months earlier, popular Mormon leader Parley P. Pratt was murdered in Arkansas by a man whose wife had left him to join the saints as one of Pratt's plural wives.

Pratt was called on a mission to the southern states and while he was on this mission, a lawsuit was filed by one Hector McLean, who accused Pratt and his wife Eleanor of kidnapping his children. McLean's children had been living with his wife's parents since their mother had (according to McLean) "abandoned" them to become Pratt's "mistress". McLean claimed that Eleanor later changed her mind and decided to "kidnap" the children. Her parents informed their son-in-law that their daughter, with the assistance of the Mormon apostle, had taken the children and fled. McLean caught up with them and recovered his children. But Pratt was exonerated by the court because the laws of that time did not recognize the kidnapping of children by the non-custodial parent as a crime. McLean then pursued Pratt to Alma, Arkansas, where he killed him. He died on 13 May 1857 and was quietly buried at what is now Fine Springs, Arkansas."[21] Hector McLean was not charged with the murder of Parley Pratt.[22]

Rumors of Pratt's death at the hand's of the legal husband of one of his "plural wives" had only recently begun to arrive in Utah.[23] These rumors, the imposition of martial law, requests from church leaders to limit interaction with wagon trains, threats of war and limited supplies all likely influenced individual Mormons who didn't sell food to the Fancher party.

Conspiracy and siege

Main article: Conspiracy and siege of the Mountain Meadows massacre

The Fancher party left Corn Creek and continued the 125 miles to Mountain Meadow, passing Parowan and Cedar City on the trail. As the Fancher party approached, several meetings were held in Cedar City and nearby Parowan by local LDS ("Latter-Day Saints") leaders pondering how to implement George A. Smith's war policies (the illusion that they were influenced by an August 4, 1857 declaration of martial law has been repeatedly debunked).[24] They decided, over the objections of some present, to "eliminate" the Fancher wagon train. Those who objected were placated with the promise of sending a rider, James Haslam, to Salt Lake City with a message to Brigham Young asking for confirmation of their decision.[25]

The somewhat dispirited Fancher party found water and fresh grazing for its livestock after reaching grassy, mountain-ringed Mountain Meadows, a widely known stopover on the old Spanish Trail, in early September. They anticipated several days of rest and recuperation there before the next 40 miles would take them out of Utah. But, on September 7 the party was attacked by a group of Native American Paiutes and Mormon militiamen dressed as Native Americans.[26] The Fancher party defended itself by encircling and lowering their wagons, wheels chained together, along with digging shallow trenches and throwing dirt both below and into the wagons, which made a strong barrier. Seven emigrants were killed during the opening attack and were buried somewhere within the wagon encirclement. Sixteen more were wounded. Nearly 12 hours after the attack was initiated, Haslam was sent to Salt Lake City to inform Brigham Young.[27][28] The attack continued for five days, during which the besieged families had little or no access to fresh water or game food and their ammunition was depleted.[26]

Meanwhile, organization among the local Mormon leadership reportedly broke down.[29]

Killings and aftermath of the massacre

Three (of nine) Utah Territorial militiamen of Tenth Regiment
"Iron Brigade" indicted in 1874 for murder or conspiracy
(Not shown: William H. Dame • Isaac C. Haight • William C. Stewart
Ellott Willden • Samuel Jukes • George Adair, Jun.)
Maj. John H. Higbee, said to have shouted the command to begin the killings. He claimed that he reluctantly participated in the massacre and only to bury the dead who he thought were victims of an "Indian attack." Maj. John D. Lee, constable, judge, and Indian Agent. Having conspired in advance with his immediate commander, Isaac C. Haight, Lee led the initial assault, and falsely offered emigrants safe passage prior to their mile-long march to the field where they were ultimately massacred. He was the only convicted participant. Philip Klingensmith, a Bishop in the church and a private in the militia. He participated in the killings, and later turned state's evidence against his fellows, after leaving the church.
Main article: Killings and aftermath of the Mountain Meadows massacre

On Friday, September 11, 1857, two Mormon militiamen approached the Fancher party wagons with a white flag and were soon followed by Indian agent and militia officer John D. Lee. Lee told the battle-weary emigrants that he had negotiated a truce with the Paiutes, whereby they could be escorted safely the 36 miles back to Cedar City under Mormon protection in exchange for turning all of their livestock and supplies over to the Native Americans.[30] Accepting this, the emigrants were led out of their fortification. When a signal was given, the Mormon militiamen turned and executed the male members of the Fancher party standing by their side. According to Mormon sources, the militia let a group of Paiute Indians execute the women and children. The bodies of the dead were gathered and looted for valuables, and were then left in shallow graves or on the open ground. Members of the Mormon militia were sworn to secrecy. A plan was set to blame the massacre on the Indians. The militia did not kill 18 small children who were deemed too young to relate the story. These children were taken by local Mormon families. Seventeen of the children were later reclaimed by the U.S. Army and returned to relatives, while one (a girl) was not returned and lived out her life among the Mormons[31].

Arrington reports that Brigham Young received the rider at his office on the same day. When he learned what was contemplated by the members of the Mormon Church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested.[28][32] Young's letter arrived two days too late, on September 13, 1857.

Some of the property of the dead was reportedly taken by the indians involved, while large amounts of cattle and personal property was taken by the Mormons in Southern Utah. John D. Lee took charge of the livestock and other property that had been collected at the Mormon settlement at Pinto. Some of the cattle was taken to Salt Lake City and traded for boots. Some reportedly remained in the hands of John D. Lee. The remaining personal property of the Fancher party was taken to the tithing house at Cedar City and auctioned off to local Mormons. [33] Brigham Young, appalled at what had taken place, initially ordered an investigation into the massacre but in the end it must be acknowledged that through his own unwillingness to work with Federal authorities contributed both directly and indirectly to the blunder of justice, and was part of the reason two trials were necessary.[28]

Investigations and prosecutions

Main article: Investigations and prosecutions relating to the Mountain Meadows massacre

Historians still question the role that local Cedar City Mormon church officials played in ordering the massacre and Young's concealment of evidence in its aftermath.[34] Young's use of inflammatory and violent language[35] in response to the Federal expedition added to the tense atmosphere at the time of the attack. After the massacre, Young stated in public forums that God had taken vengeance on the Fancher party.[36] It is unclear whether Young held this view because he believed that this specific group posed an actual threat to colonists or because he believed that the group was directly responsible for past crimes against Mormons. According to historian MacKinnon, "After the [Utah] war, U.S. President James Buchanan implied that face-to-face communications with Brigham Young might have averted the conflict, and Young argued that a north-south telegraph line in Utah could have prevented the Mountain Meadows Massacre."[37] MacKinnon suggests that hostilities could have been avoided if Young had traveled east to Washington D.C. to resolve governmental problems instead of taking a five week trip north on the eve of the Utah War for church related reasons.[38]

Media coverage and public relations

Main articles: Mountain Meadows massacre and the media and Mountain Meadows massacre and Mormon public relations

The first published report on the incident was made in 1859 by Brevet Major J.H. Carleton who had been tasked by the U.S. Army to investigate the incident and bury the still exposed corpses at Mountain Meadows.[39] Although the massacre was covered to some extent in the media during the 1850s,[40] the first period of intense nation-wide publicity about the massacre began around 1872, after investigators obtained the confession of Philip Klingensmith, a Mormon bishop at the time of the massacre and a private in the Utah militia. In 1867 C.V. Waite published "An Authentic History Of Brigham Young" which described the events. In 1872, Mark Twain commented on the massacre through the lens of contemporary American public opinion in an appendix to his semi-autobiographical travel book Roughing It. In 1873, the massacre was a prominent feature of a history by T.B.H. Stenhouse, The Rocky Mountain Saints.[41] National newspapers covered the Lee trials closely from 1874 to 1876, and his execution in 1877 was widely covered.

The massacre has been treated extensively by several historical works, beginning with Lee's own Confession in 1877, expressing his opinion that George A. Smith was sent to southern Utah by Brigham Young to direct the massacre.[42] In 1910, the massacre was the subject of a short book by Josiah F. Gibbs, who also attributed responsibility for the massacre to Young and Smith.[43] The first detailed and comprehensive work using modern historical methods was The Mountain Meadows Massacre in 1950 by Juanita Brooks, a Mormon scholar who lived near the area in southern Utah. Brooks found no evidence of direct involvement by Brigham Young, but charged him with obstructing the investigation and for provoking the attack through his rhetoric.

Initially, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) denied any involvement by Mormons, and was relatively silent on the issue. In 1872, however, it excommunicated some of the participants for their role in the massacre.[44] Since then, the LDS Church has consistently condemned the massacre, though acknowledging involvement by local Mormon leaders. In September 2007, the LDS Church published an article in its official publications marking 150 years since the tragedy occurred.[45][46]

Remembrances

Main article: Remembrances of the Mountain Meadows massacre

Starting in 1988 descendants of both the Fancher party victims and the Mormon participants collaborated to design and dedicate a monument to replace the neglected and crumbling marker on the site. There are now three monuments to the massacre. Two of these are at Mountain Meadows. Mountain Meadows Association built a monument in 1990 which is maintained by the Utah State Division of Parks and Recreation. In 1999 the Mormon Church built and maintains a second monument. [2] [3] [4]. A monument in Arkansas is a replica of Carleton's original marker maintained by the Mountain Meadows Massacre Monument Foundation.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Carleton, 1859 & I saw several bones of what must have been very small children. Dr. Brewer says from what he saw he thinks some infants were butchered. The mothers doubtless had these in their arms, and the same shot or blow may have deprived both of life.
  2. ^ {{Harvnb|Lynch|1859| I enquired of Jacob Hamblin who is a high Church dignitary, why these remains were not buried at some time subsequent to the murder? he said that the bodies were so much decomposed that it was impossible to inter them.
  3. ^ Brooks, 1950, p.86
  4. ^ The Utah Territory militia technically included every able-bodied Mormon in the region between ages eighteen and forty-five (Shirts 1994; MacKinnon 2007).
  5. ^ See Beadle, J. H., Polygamy: or, The Mysteries and Crimes of Mormonism, (1882), chapter 10: "The Mormon Murderers
  6. ^ Brooks 1991, page 80
  7. ^ Hamblin 1876 stated that he buried over 120 skeletons); James Lynch (1859) reported that there were 140 victims; in Thompson 1860, p. 8,82, Superintendent Forney reported that there were 115 victims; a 1932 monument states that about 140 were murdered and that 17 children were spared; while Brooks' (introduction, 1991) believes that the figure of 123 is exaggerated, citing several reports which say that less than 100 were actually killed. The 1990 monument lists the names of 82 victims identified as the result of the careful research of descendants of survivors of the massacre ([1] and states that there were other victims whose names are still unknown. See also Bagley 2002 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBagley2002 (help).
  8. ^ Bagley (2002), pp. 55–68; Finck (2005).
  9. ^ Bancroft (1889) p. 545; Linn (1902) Chap. XVI, 4th full paragraph.
  10. ^ Bancroft (1889) p. 544; Gibbs (1910) p. 12.
  11. ^ Stenhouse 1873, p. 431 (citing "Argus", an anonymous contributor to the Corinne Daily Reporter whom Stenhouse met and vouched for).
  12. ^ In 1856, Young said "the government of God, as administered here" may to some seem "despotic" because "[i]t lays the axe at the root of the tree of sin and iniquity; judgment is dealt out against the transgression of the law of God"; however, "does not [it] give every person his rights?" Young 1856, p. 256.
  13. ^ Lyman, Edward Leo, The Overland Journey from Utah to California: Wagon Travel from the City of Saints to the City of Angels, University of Nevada Press, (2004), p. 130 ISBN 0874175011
  14. ^ Martineau 1857
  15. ^ Lyman 2004, p. 133
  16. ^ Dimick B. Huntington Journal
  17. ^ Mountain Meadows Massacre in Tietoa Mormonismista Suomeksi.
  18. ^ See PBS Episode 4 and UTLM Newsletters #88 and essay at youknow.com
  19. ^ Brooks 1991, page xxi.
  20. ^ Bagley (2002), p. 280, refers to the "Missouri Wildcats" story as "Utah mythology"
  21. ^ Parley Pratt, Utah
  22. ^ See also crimelibrary.com.
  23. ^ Bagley (2002), pp. 68–72, 80–81.
  24. ^ See Shirts (1994) for the error, Bagley (2002), 168-70, 416n63, for the facts, Paragraph 6
  25. ^ Brigham Young: American Moses, Leonard J. Arrington, University of Illinois Press, (1986)
  26. ^ a b Shirts, (1994) Paragraph 8
  27. ^ Penrose 1885
  28. ^ a b c Brigham Young: American Moses, Leonard J. Arrington, University of Illinois Press, (1986), p. 257
  29. ^ Shirts, (1994) Paragraph 6
  30. ^ Shirts, (1994) Paragraph 9
  31. ^ Brooks, 1950, pp 101–105
  32. ^ Brigham Young to Isaac C. Haight, Sept. 10, 1857, Letterpress Copybook 3:827–28, Brigham Young Office Files, LDS Church Archives
  33. ^ Brooks,1950. See also Klingensmith Testimony at first trial of John D. Lee
  34. ^ Shirts 1994
  35. ^ MacKinnon 2007, p. 57
  36. ^ Bagley 2002, p. 247 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBagley2002 (help).
  37. ^ MacKinnon 2007, p. endnote 50
  38. ^ MacKinnon 2007, p. 17
  39. ^ Brevet Major J.H. Carleton's Report to his commanding officer. (1859)
  40. ^ Lyman 2004, p. 138
  41. ^ Stenhouse 1873.
  42. ^ Lee 1877.
  43. ^ Gibbs 1910.
  44. ^ Bagley, Will (2002), Blood of the prophets : Brigham Young and the massacre at Mountain Meadows, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, p. 273, ISBN 0806136391
  45. ^ Richard E. Turley Jr., Writing 'Massacre at Mountain Meadows', lds.org, 2007-08-29
  46. ^ Michael De Groote, Writing 'Massacre at Mountain Meadows', Mormon Times, Sep. 11, 2008

References

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  2. Bagley, Will (2002), Blood of the Prophets: Brigham Young and the Massacre at Mountain Meadows, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 0-8061-3426-7.
  3. Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1889), The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft: History of Utah, 1540–1886, vol. 26, San Francisco: History Company, LCC F826.B2 1889, LCCN 07018413 (Internet Archive versions).
  4. Beadle, John Hanson (1870), "Chapter VI. The Bloody Period.", Life in Utah, Philadelphia: National Publishing, pp. 177–195, LCC BX8645 .B4 1870, LCCN 30005377.
  5. Bigler, David (1998), Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847–1896, Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, ISBN 0-87421-245-6.
  6. Briggs, Robert H. (2006), "The Mountain Meadows Massacre: An Analytical Narrative Based on Participant Confessions" (PDF), Utah Historical Quarterly, 74 (4): 313–333.
  7. Brooks, Juanita (1950), The Mountain Meadows Massacre, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 0-8061-2318-4.
  8. Brown (October 3 1857), Hamilton, Henry (ed.), "Rumored Massacre on the Plains", Los Angeles Star, vol. VIII, no. 21, p. 1 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |publication-date= (help).
  9. Buerger, David John (2002), The Mysteries of Godliness: A History of Mormon Temple Worship (2nd ed.), Salt Lake City: Signature Books, ISBN 1560851767.
  10. Burns, Ken; Ives, Stephen (1996), New Perspectives on the West (Documentary), Washington, D.C.: PBS.
  11. Cannon, Frank J.; Knapp, George L. (1913), Brigham Young and His Mormon Empire, New York: Fleming H. Revell Co..
  12. Carleton, James Henry (1859), Special Report on the Mountain Meadows Massacre, Washington: Government Printing Office (published 1902).
  13. Carleton, James Henry (1859), (alternate) Special Report on the Mountain Meadows Massacre, Washington: Government Printing Office (published 1902).
  14. Carrington, Albert, ed. (April 6, 1859), "The Court & the Army", Deseret News, vol. 9, no. 5, p. 2 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  15. Carrington, Albert, ed. (1 December 1869), "Mountain Meadows Massacre", Deseret News, 18 (43): 6–7 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  16. Christian, J. Ward (October 4, 1857), Hamilton, Henry (ed.), "Horrible Massacre of Arkansas and Missouri Emigrants", Los Angeles Star, San Bernardino (published October 10 1857) {{citation}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  17. Cradlebaugh, John (March 15, 1859), Anderson, Kirk (ed.), "Charge", Valley Tan, vol. 1, no. 20, p. 1 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |publication-date= (help).
  18. Cradlebaugh, John (March 29 1859), Anderson, Kirk (ed.), "Discharge of the Grand Jury", Valley Tan, vol. 1, no. 22, p. 3 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |publication-date= (help).
  19. Cradlebaugh, John (February 7, 1863), Utah and the Mormons: a Speech on the Admission of Utah as a State, 37th United States Congress, 3rd Session {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: location (link).
  20. Crockett, Robert D. (2003), "A trial lawyer reviews Will Bagleys' Blood of the Prophets", FARMS Review, 15 (2): 199–254.
  21. Cuch, Forrest S. (2000). History of Utah's American Indians. Salt Lake City: Utah State Division of Indian Affairs : Utah State Division of History : Distributed by Utah State University Press. pp. 131–139. ISBN 0-913738-48-4. OCLC 45321868. Retrieved 2007-07-08. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help).
  22. Denton, Sally (2003), American Massacre: The Tragedy at Mountain Meadows, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 0-375-41208-5. Washington Post review and Letter to the editor in response to the review.
  23. Dunn, Jacob Piatt (1886), Massacres of the Mountains: A History of the Indian Wars of the Far West, New York: Harper & Brothers.
  24. Erickson, Dan (1996), "Joseph Smith's 1891 Millennial Prophecy: The Quest for Apocalyptic Deliverance", Journal of Mormon History, 22 (2): 1–34.
  25. Fancher, Lynn-Marie; Wallner, Alison C. (2006), 1857: An Arkansas Primer To The Mountain Meadows Massacre.
  26. Fillmore, Millard (September 26 1850), "I nominate Brigham Young, of Utah, as governor of the Territory of Utah", in McCook, Anson G. (ed.), Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate of the United States of America, vol. 8, Washington, D.C.: GPO (published 1887), p. 252 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. Finck, James (2005), "Mountain Meadows Massacre", in Dillard, Tom W. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture, Little Rock, Arkansas: Encyclopedia of Arkansas Project.
  28. Fisher, Alyssa (2003-09-16), "A Sight Which Can Never Be Forgotten", Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  29. Ford, Thomas (1854), A History of Illinois, from its Commencement as a State in 1818 to 1847, Chicago: S.C. Griggs & Co..
  30. Forney, J. (May 5, 1859), "Kirk Anderson Esq.", Valley Tan, vol. 1, no. 28 (published May 10, 1859), p. 1 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help); also included in Brooks (1991) Appendix X.
  31. Forney, J[acob]. (May 5 1859), "Visit of the Superintendent of Indian Affairs to Southern Utah", Deseret News, vol. 9, no. 10 (published May 11 1859), p. 1 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  32. Gibbs, Josiah F. (1910), The Mountain Meadows Massacre, Salt Lake City: Salt Lake Tribune, LCC F826 .G532 LCCN 37010372.
  33. Grant, Jedediah M. (March 12, 1854), "Discourse", Deseret News, vol. 4, no. 20 (published July 27 1854), pp. 1–2 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  34. Grant, Jedediah M. (April 2 1854), "Fulfilment of Prophecy—Wars and Commotions", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 2, Liverpool: F.D. & S.W. Richards (published 1855), pp. 145–49 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  35. Hamblin, Jacob (September 1876), "Testimony of Jacob Hamblin", in Linder, Douglas (ed.), Mountain Meadows Massacre Trials (John D. Lee Trials) 1875–1876, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law (published 2006).
  36. Hamblin, Jacob (1881), "Jacob Hamblin: A Narrative of His Personal Experience", Faith Promoting Series, vol. 5.
  37. Hamilton, Henry, ed. (October 10 1857), "Horrible Massacre of Arkansas and Missouri Emigrants", Los Angeles Star {{citation}}: Check date values in: |publication-date= (help).
  38. Higbee, John M. (February 1894), "Statement", in Brooks, Juanita (ed.), The Mountain Meadows Massacre, Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, pp. 226–35, ISBN 0-8061-2318-4 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |publication-year= ignored (help).
  39. Huntington, Dimick B. (1857), Journal, LDS Archives, Ms d. 1419{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
  40. Hurt, Garland (October 24 1857), Letter from Garland Hurt, Utah Territorial Indian Agent, to Col. A.S. Johnston, U.S. Army {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  41. Kimball, Heber C. (January 11 1857), "The Body of Christ-Parable of the Vine-A Wile Enthusiastic Spirit Not of God-The Saints Should Not Unwisely Expose Each Others' Follies", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, and the Twelve Apostles, vol. 4, Liverpool: S.W. Richards (published 1857), pp. 164–81 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  42. Kimball, Heber C. (August 16 1857), "Limits of Forebearance-Apostates-Economy-Giving Endowments", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, and the Twelve Apostles, vol. 4, Liverpool: S.W. Richards (published 1857), pp. 374–76 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  43. Kimball, Heber C. (August 28 1859), "Greater Responsibilities of Those Who Know the Truth, &c.", in Lyman, Amasa (ed.), Journal of Discourses Delivered by President Brigham Young, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 7, Liverpool: Amasa Lyman (published 1860), pp. 231–37 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help).
  44. Klingensmith, Philip (September 5 1872), written at Lincoln County, Nevada, Toohy, Dennis J. (ed.), "Mountain Meadows Massacre", Corinne Daily Reporter, 5 (252), Corinne, Utah (published September 24 1872): 1 {{citation}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  45. Klingensmith, Philip (July 23–24, 1875), written at Beaver City, Utah, Testimony, First trial of John D. Lee, Braintree, MA: Mountain Meadows Association.
  46. Lee, John D. (1877), Bishop, William W. (ed.), Mormonism Unveiled; or the Life and Confessions of the Late Mormon Bishop, John D. Lee, St. Louis, Missouri: Bryan, Brand & Co..
  47. Linn, William Alexander (1902), The Story of the Mormons: From the Date of their Origin to the Year 1901, New York: McMillan (scanned versions).
  48. Lynch, James (July 22 1859), Affidavit of James Lynch Regarding the Mountain Meadows Massacre September 1857 Sworn Testimony {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); also included in Brooks (1991) Appendix XII.
  49. MacKinnon, William P. (2003), "'Like Splitting a Man Up His Backbone': The Territorial Dismemberment of Utah" (PDF), Utah Historical Quarterly, 71 (2): 1850–96.
  50. MacKinnon, William P. (2007), "Loose in the stacks, a half-century with the Utah War and its legacy" (PDF), Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, 40 (1): 43–81.
  51. Martineau, James H. (August 22 1857), "Correspondence: Trip to the Santa Clara", Deseret News, vol. 9, no. 5, Parowan, Utah Territory (published September 23 1857), p. 3 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  52. McMurtry, Larry (2005), Oh what a slaughter : massacres in the American West, 1846–1890, New York: Simon & Schuster, ISBN ISBN 074325077X {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help). BookReporter.com review.
  53. Melville, J. Keith (1960), "Theory and Practice of Church and State During the Brigham Young Era" (PDF), BYU Studies, 3 (1): 33–55.
  54. Mitchell, William C. (April 26 1860), List of the Mountain Meadows Massacre Victims, Letter to A. B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Washington, D.C. {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  55. Morrill, Laban (September 1876), "Laban Morrill Testimony—witness for the prosecution", in Linder, Douglas (ed.), Mountain Meadows Massacre Trials (John D. Lee Trials) 1875–1876, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law (published 2006).
  56. Novak, Shannon; Rodseth, Lars (2006), "Remembering Mountain Meadows: Collective violence and manipulation of social boundaries", Journal of Anthropological Research, 62 (1): 1–25, ISSN 0091-7710.
  57. Parshall, Ardis E. (2005), "'Pursue, Retake and Punish': The 1857 Santa Clara Ambush" (PDF), Utah Historical Quarterly, 73 (1): 64–86.
  58. Penrose, Charles W. (July 4 1883), "An Unpardonable Offense", Deseret News, vol. 32, no. 24, p. 376 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  59. Penrose, Charles W. (1885). Supplement to the lecture on the Mountain Meadows massacre. Important additional testimony recently received. Salt Lake City: Printed at Juvenile Instructor Office. p. 40. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help).
  60. Pratt, Parley P. (December 31 1855), "Marriage and Morals in Utah", Deseret News, vol. 5, no. 45 (published January 16 1856), pp. 356–57 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  61. Pratt, Steven (1975), "Eleanor McLean and the Murder of Parley P. Pratt" (PDF), BYU Studies, 15 (2): 225–56.
  62. Prince, Gregory A.; Wright, Wm. Robert (2005), David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, ISBN 0874808227.
  63. Quinn, D. Michael (1997), publi=The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power, Salt Lake City: Signature Books, ISBN 1-56085-060-4.
  64. Quinn, D. Michael (2001), "LDS 'Headquarters Culture' and the Rest of Mormonism: Past and Present", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, 34 (3–4): 135–64.
  65. Rogers, Wm. H. (February 29 1860), "The Mountain Meadows Massacre", Valley Tan, vol. 2, no. 16, pp. 2–3 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); also included in Brooks (1991) Appendix XI.
  66. Scott, Malinda Cameron (1877). "Malinda (Cameron) Scott Thurston Deposition". Mountain Meadows Association. Retrieved 2007-06-15.
  67. Sessions, Gene (2003), "Shining New Light on the Mountain Meadows Massacre", FAIR Conference 2003, FAIR.
  68. Shirts, Morris (1994), "Mountain Meadows Massacre", in Powell, Allen Kent (ed.), Utah History Encyclopedia, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
  69. Smart, Donna T. (1994), "Parley Parker Pratt", in Powell, Allen Kent (ed.), Utah History Encyclopedia, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
  70. Smith, Christopher (January 21, 2001), "Forensic Study Aids Tribe's View Of Mountain Meadows Massacre", Salt Lake Tribune, pp. A1, ISSN 0746-3502 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  71. Smith, George A. (September 13 1857), "Report of a Visit to the Southern Country", in Calkin, Asa (ed.), Journal of Discourses, vol. 5, Liverpool: Asa Calkin (published 1858), pp. 221–25 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  72. Smith, George A. (July 30 1875), "Deposition, People v. Lee", Deseret News, vol. 24, no. 27, Salt Lake City (published August 4 1875), p. 8 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  73. Stenhouse, T.B.H. (1873), The Rocky Mountain Saints: a Full and Complete History of the Mormons, from the First Vision of Joseph Smith to the Last Courtship of Brigham Young, New York: D. Appleton, ID=LCC BX8611 .S8 1873, LCCN 16024014, ASIN: B00085RMQM {{citation}}: Missing pipe in: |id= (help).
  74. Stoffle, Richard W (1978). Kaibab Paiute history : the early years. Fredonia, Ariz.: Kaibab Paiute Tribe. p. 57. OCLC 9320141. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help).
  75. Thompson, Jacob (1860), Message of the President of the United States: communicating, in compliance with a resolution of the Senate, information in relation to the massacre at Mountain Meadows, and other massacres in Utah Territory, 36th Congress, 1st Session, Exec. Doc. No. 42, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of the Interior.
  76. Turley, Richard E., Jr. (September 2007), "The Mountain Meadows Massacre", [[Ensign (magazine)|Ensign]], Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ISSN 0884-1136 {{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link).
  77. Twain, Mark (1873), [[Roughing It]], Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing {{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help).
  78. Waite, C.V. (Catherine Van Valkenburg) (1868), The Mormon Prophet and His Harem: Or, an Authentic History of Brigham Young, His Numerous Wives and Children, Chicago: J.S. Goodman & Co..
  79. Walker, Ronald W. (2003), ""Save the emigrants," Joseph Clewes on the Mountain Meadows massacre" (PDF), BYU Studies, 42 (1): 139–152.
  80. Whitney, Helen; Barnes, Jane (2007), [[The Mormons]] (Documentary), Washington, D.C.: PBS {{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help).
  81. Young, Brigham; Kimball, Heber C.; Hyde, Orson; Pratt, Parley P.; Smith, William; Pratt, Orson; Page, John E.; Taylor, John; Woodruff, Wilford; Smith, George A.; Richards, Willard; Lyman, Amasa M. (April 6 1845), Proclamation of the Twelve Apostles of the Church of Jesus Christ, of Latter-Day Saints, New York: LDS Church {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  82. Young, Brigham (February 5 1852), Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature (sic), Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: location (link).
  83. Young, Brigham (July 8 1855), "The Kingdom of God", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 2, Liverpool: F.D. & S.W. Richards (published 1855), pp. 309–17 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help).
  84. Young, Brigham (March 2, 1856a), "The Necessity of the Saints Living up to the Light Which Has Been Given Them", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 3, Liverpool: Orson Pratt (published 1856), pp. 221–226 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  85. Young, Brigham (March 16, 1856b), "Instructions to the Bishops—Men Judged According to their Knowledge—Organization of the Spirit and Body—Thought and Labor to be Blended Together", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 3, Liverpool: Orson Pratt (published 1856), pp. 243–49 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  86. Young, Brigham (March 16, 1856c), "Difficulties Not Found Among the Saints Who Live Their Religion—Adversity Will Teach Them Their Dependence on God—God Invisibly Controls the Affairs of Mankind", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 3, Liverpool: Orson Pratt (published 1856), pp. 254–60 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  87. Young, Brigham (September 21, 1856d), "The People of God Disciplined by Trials—Atonement by the Shedding of Blood—Our Heavenly Father—A Privilege Given to all the Married Sisters in Utah", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, and the Twelve Apostles, vol. 4, Liverpool: S.W. Richards (published 1857), pp. 51–63 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  88. Young, Brigham (February 8, 1857b), "To Know God is Eternal Life—God the Father of Our Spirits and Bodies—Things Created Spiritually First—Atonement by the Shedding of Blood", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, and the Twelve Apostles, vol. 4, Liverpool: S.W. Richards (published 1857), pp. 215–21 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  89. Young, Brigham (July 5, 1857c), "True Happiness—Fruits of Not Following Counsel—Popular Prejudice Against the Mormons—The Coming Army—Punishment of Evildoers", in Calkin, Asa (ed.), Journal of Discourses Delivered by President Brigham Young, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 5, Liverpool: Asa Calkin (published 1858), pp. 1–6 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  90. Young, Brigham (July 26, 1857d), "Nebuchadnezzar's Dream—Opposition of Men and Devils to the Latter-Day Kingdom—Governmental Breach of the Utah Mail Contract", in Calkin, Asa (ed.), Journal of Discourses Delivered by President Brigham Young, His Two Counsellors, the Twelve Apostles, and Others, vol. 5, Liverpool: Asa Calkin (published 1858), pp. 72–78 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  91. Young, Brigham (August 5, 1857a), Proclamation by the Governor, Salt Lake City: Utah Territory {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  92. Young, Brigham (April 7, 1867), "Word of wisdom", in Watt, G.D. (ed.), Journal of Discourses by Brigham Young, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, His Two Counsellors, and the Twelve Apostles, vol. 12, Liverpool: S.W. Richards (published 1869), p. 27, retrieved 2007-06-24 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).
  93. Young, Brigham (July 30, 1875), "Deposition, People v. Lee", Deseret News, vol. 24, no. 27, Salt Lake City (published August 4 1875), p. 8 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help).
  94. Young, Brigham (April 30, 1877), "Interview with Brigham Young", Deseret News, vol. 26, no. 16 (published May 23 1877), pp. 242–43 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |publication-date= (help)
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