Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
| Middle Eastern theatre | |||||||||
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| Part of World War I | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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 Jangal movement of Gilan |
 Italy | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
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Total conscripted: 2,850,000 max strength: 800,000 | |||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
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KIA:771,844[3] | |||||||||
| The breakdown of Ottoman casualties is listed under Ottoman casualties of World War I | |||||||||
The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I (November 2, 1914 - October 29, 1918) fought between mainly the Ottoman Empire of the Central Powers and the Allied Powers primarily of the British and the Russians with the Arabs who participated in the Arab Revolt, the Armenians initially with Armenian Resistance extending to the Armenian Corps of Democratic Republic of Armenia. The theater ended with the Russians after the Armistice of Erzincan (December 5, 1917) resulting with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918), with Armenians after the Trabzon Peace Conference (March 14 - April 5 1918) resulting with the Treaty of Batum (June 4 1918) and with rest of the Allied Powers after the Armistice of Mudros (October 30, 1918) resulting with the Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920). This theatre encompassed the largest territory of all the theatres of WWI. It comprised five main campaigns: the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, the Mesopotamian Campaign, the Caucasus Campaign, the Persian Campaign and the Dardanelles Campaign. There were also minor operations of Arabia and Southern Arabia Campaign, and Aden Campaign.
Objectives
The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in October–November 1914, pursuant to the secret Ottoman-German Alliance[4] signed on August 2, 1914, threatening Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India and the East via the Suez Canal. The main objective of the Ottoman Empire at the Caucuses was the recovery of its territories in Eastern Anatolia lost during the prior Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78. The military goals of the Caucasus Campaign was determined to retake Artvin, Ardahan, Kars, and the port of Batum.[5] A success in this region would mean a diversion of Russian forces to this front from the Polish and Galician fronts.[6] The plan found sympathy with German advisory. From economic perspective, the Ottoman — or rather German — strategic goal was to cut off Russian access to the hydrocarbon resources around the Caspian Sea.[7] Germany established Intelligence Bureau for the East on the eve of World War I. The bureau was involved in intelligence and subversive missions to Persia and to Afghanistan, to dismantle the Anglo-Russian Entente.[8] Aligned with the Germany, Ottoman Empire wanted to wane the influence of the Entente in the Persia. Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha claimed that if Russians could be beaten in the key cities of Persia, it could open the way to Azerbaijan, to Central Asia and to India. If these nations were to be removed from western influence, Enver visioned a cooperation between these newly establishing nationalistic states. This was Enver's pan-Turanian project. Enver's project conflicted a major western project played out as struggles among several key imperial powers (Enver was anti-imperialistic in his thinking), known as Imperialism in Asia. His political position was based on the assumption [which turned to be true] none of the colonial powers possessed the resources to withstand the strains of world war and maintain their direct rule in Asian states [Enver concentrated on a smaller geopolitical section limited in Turkic nature]. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of the Asia's remaining colonies during World War One and interwar period, but decolonisation on the scale of Enver's ambitions never achieved. However, Enver continued with his ambition after the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the powerful Imperial Powers until to be killed on August 4, 1922.
In 1914, before the war, the British government had contracted with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company for the supply of oil-fuel for the navy.[7] The Anglo-Persian Oil Company was in the proposed path of Enver's project which British had the exclusive rights to work petroleum deposits throughout the Persian Empire except in the provinces of Azerbaijan, Ghilan, Mazendaran, Asdrabad and Khorasan.[7]
Russia viewed the Caucasus Front as secondary to the Eastern Front. Russia had taken the fortress of Kars from the Turks during the Russo-Turkish War in 1877 and feared a campaign into the Caucasus aimed at retaking Kars and the port of Batum. In March 1915, when the Russian foreign minister Sergey Sazonov meet with British ambassador George Buchanan and French Ambassador Maurice Paléologue stated that a lasting postwar settlement demanded full Russian possession of the capital city of the Ottoman Empire, the straits of Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, southern Thrace up to the Enos-Midia line as well as parts of the Black Sea coast of Anatolia between the Bosphorus, the Sakarya River and an undetermined point near the Bay of Izmit. The Russian Tsarist regime planned to replace the Muslim population of Northern Anatolia and Istanbul with more reliable Cossack settlers [9]
Armenian national liberation movement sought to establish First Republic of Armenia. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation achieved this goal with the establishment of the internationally recognized Democratic Republic of Armenia in May 1918. Also as early as 1915, the Administration for Western Armenia and later Republic of Mountainous Armenia were Armenian controlled entities, while Centrocaspian Dictatorship was established with Armenian participation. None of these entities were long lasting.
Forces
After the Young Turk Revolution and the establishment of the Second Constitutional Era (Template:Lang-tr) on July 3, 1908, a major military reform initiative started. Army headquarters were modernized. The Ottoman Empire engaged with the Turco-Italian War and Balkan Wars just short of couple years before which forced more restructuring of the army. During this period, the empire divided its forces into armies. Each army headquarters consisted of a chief of staff and operations section, intelligence section, logistics section and a personnel section. As a long established tradition in Ottoman military, support departments for supplies, medical and veterinary services included in these armies. In 1914, before Ottoman Empire entered the War, the four Armies divided their forces into Corps and Corps into divisions such that each division had 3 infantry regiments and an artillery regiment. Before the war, the largest units were First Army had 15 divisions in total; Second Army had 4 divisions in total; additionally, a freestanding infantry division with 3 infantry regiments and an artillery brigade; Third Army had 9 divisions in total. Additionally, four independent infantry regiments and four independent cavalry regiments (tribal units); Fourth Army had 4 divisions in total. In August 1914, of 36 infantry divisions organized, 14 were established from scratch and essentially new divisions. In a very short time, these 8 newly recruited divisions gone through major redeployment. During the World War, more armies established under the names of 5th Army, 6th Army in 1915 and 7th Army, 8th Army in 1917. Kuva-i İnzibatiye and just in the name Army of Islam which had only a single Corps in 1918. By 1918, these original armies had been so badly reduced that the Empire was forced to establish new unit definitions which incorporated from these armies. These were the “Army Groups” with the names of Orient Army Group and Thunderbolt Army Group. However, although the number of armies were increasing during this four years, its resources were drying off, both in manpower and supplies, nothing much was left from the Ottoman Armies as Army Groups were not bigger than the original Army size set in 1914. One unique characteristic for the Palestine campaign was until the defeat in Palestine and Mustafa Kemal’s appointment as the commander of the Seventh Army, most of the staff posts in the Yıldırım Army Group were held by German officers and their influence was so great that even the correspondence within the headquarters was done in German language. Just about all the war equipment was built by Germans or Austrians and were maintained by German and Austrian engineers. In 1918, the Ottoman Army was still partially intact and partially effective to the end of the war.
Before the war, Russia had Russian Caucasus Army but they had to redeploy almost half of their forces to the Prussian front due to the defeats at the Battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes, leaving behind just 60,000 troops in this theatre.
British established Mediterranean Expeditionary Force, British Dardanelles Army, Egyptian Expeditionary Force and in 1917 they established Dunsterforce under Lionel Dunsterville who was appointed in 1917 to lead an Allied force of under 1,000 Australian, British, Canadian and New Zealand elite troops, accompanied by armored cars.
France send the French Armenian Legion to this theatre part of its larger French Foreign Legion. many of the volunteers in Foreign Legion who managed to survive the first years of the war were generally released from the Legion to join their respective national armies.
In the summer of 1914, Armenian volunteer units were established under the Russian Armed forces and Armenian national liberation movement commanded the Armenian Fedayee (Template:Lang-hy) during these conflicts. These were generally refereed as Armenian partisian guerrilla detachments. In 1917, The Dashnaks established Armenian Corps under the command of General Tovmas Nazarbekian which after the declaration of the Democratic Republic of Armenia they became the military core of this new state and Nazarbekian became the first Commander-in-chief.
Recruitment
The Ottoman Empire established a new recruitment law on 12 May 1914. This new law lowered the conscription age from 20 to 18 and abolished the “redif” or reserve system. Active duty lengths were set at 2 years for the infantry, 3 years for other branches of the Army and 5 years for the Navy. These measures remained largely theoretical during the war. Traditional Ottoman forces depended on volunteers from the Muslim population of the empire. Additionally, several groups and individuals in the Ottoman society volunteered for active duty during the World War. The major examples being the “Mevlevi” and the “Kadiri.” There were also units formed by Caucasain and Rumelian Turks, who took part in the battles in Mesopotamia and Palestine. Among Ottoman forces volunteers were not only from Turkic groups; there were also Arab and Bedouin volunteers who supported the campaign against the British to capture the Suez Canal, and in Mesopotamia. It has to be noted that these forces did not provide a substantial support. Volunteers become unreliable with the establishment of organized army, as they were not trained well, also most of the Arab and Bedouin volunteers were motivated by financial gains. As the real conflicts approached, Ottoman volunteer system disappeared by itself.
Before the war, Russia established a volunteer system to be used in the Caucasus Campaign. In the summer of 1914, Armenian volunteer units were established under the Russian Armed forces. As the Russian Armenian conscripts were already send to the European Front, this force was uniquely established from Armenians that were not Russian Armenian or the ones that were not obligated to serve. The Armenian detachment units were credited no small measure of the success which attended by the Russian forces, as they were natives of the region, adjusted to the climatic conditions, familiar with every road and mountain path, and had real incentive to fierce and resolute combat.[10] The Armenian volunteers were small, mobile, and well adapted to the semi-guerrilla warfare.[11] They did good work as scouts, though they took part in many severe engagements.[11]
Asymmetrical forces
The forces used in the Middle Eastern theatre was not only regular army units and regular warfare, but also what is known today as "Asymmetrical conflicts".
Contrary to myth, it was not T. E. Lawrence or the Army that conceptualised a campaign of internal insurgency against the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East: it was the Arab Bureau of Britain's Foreign Office that devised the Arab Revolt. The Arab Bureau had long felt it likely that a campaign instigated and financed by outside powers, supporting the breakaway-minded tribes and regional challengers to the Ottoman government's centralised rule of their empire, would pay great dividends in the diversion of effort that would be needed to meet such a challenge. The Ottoman authorities devoted a hundred or a thousand times the resources to contain the threat of such an internal rebellion compared to the Allies' cost of sponsoring it.
Germany established Intelligence Bureau for the East on the eve of War. It was dedicated to promoting and sustaining subversive and nationalist agitations in the British Indian Empire and the Persian Campaign and Egyptian satellite states. Its Persia operations were led by Wilhelm Wassmuss.[12] Wilhelm Wassmuss was a German diplomat, also known as the "German Lawrence of Arabia or "Wassmuss of Persia". He attempted to foment trouble for the British in the Persian Gulf.
Operational Area
The Caucasus Campaign extended from the Caucasus to the Eastern Anatolia reaching as far as Trabzon, Bitlis, Muş and Van. The land warfare was accompanied by the Russian navy in the Black Sea Region. The Persian Campaign was at northern Persian Azerbaijan and western Persia compromising the provinces of East Azarbaijan, West Azarbaijan and Ardabil cities included Tabriz, Urmia, Ardabil, Maragheh, Marand, Mahabad and Khoy. The Gallipoli Campaign took place at Gallipoli peninsula. The Mesopotamian campaign was limited to the lands watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris cities included Basra Kut, Baghdad. The main challenge at this operational area was moving the supplies and troops through the swamps (Mesopotamian Marshes) and deserts which surrounded the conflict area. The Sinai and Palestine Campaign took place on the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine, and Syria, cities included Gaza, Jerusalem.
General consensus is that Ottoman Empire mainly fought on the Empire’s own territories. In reality over 90,000 close to 100,000 troops were sent to the Eastern European Front in 1916. The operations involved with these troops are not part of this article. Central Powers asked these units to support the operations against the Russian army. Later, this was perceived a big military mistake as these forces needed to protect the own territories under the massive Erzerum Offensive was under way. This move, initiated by Enver’s proposal, originally rejected by the German Chief of Staff General Falkenhayn, but later his successor, Hindenburg, agreed, however with some doubts. The decision was reached after the Brusilov Offensive, as the Central Powers had a big manpower gap in the Eastern Power. Beginning with early 1916, Enver decided to send XV Army Corps to Galicia, XI Army Corps to Romania, XX Army Corps and 177th Infantry Regiment to Macedonia. There are two Turkish sources regarding these operations and respectively they state 117,000 and 130,000 send but both agree that nearly 8,000 of them were KIA with another 22,000 being WIA.
Support Zones
Ottoman Empire hoping to develop distraction to the British in Sinai and Palestine Campaign engaged at the neighboring North African Campaign of the African theatre of World War I. Ottoman Empire had a continued military existence since the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912. Enver Pasha supported the nucleus of the resistance in Libya to the Italian colonial regime because of the natural connection between them as a result of Islam in Libya. The rise of Libyan nationalism fostered with this unified resistance to the Italians. Sanusi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica. Sanusi rescued the region from unrest and anarchy, as the Sanusi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people an attachment and feelings of unity and purpose. Early 1915, Italy and Ottoman Empire was not in war. In support of Sanusi, only 500 Ottoman officers and soldiers fought at this front in leading Sanusi militia, which numbered between 15 and 30 thousand according to Turkish or Italian sources. At the beginning of the war, the Sanusi militia was well trained force under the Ottoman officers of the secret service Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa. When Italy declared war on Central Powers on 24 May 1915, the Italian-Sanusi war became a part of the War and the Ottoman General Staff sent advisers and arms to Ahmad al-Sharif instead of using secret service. Ahmad al-Sharif was leading the struggle with the title of “Amir-al-Muminin” for Africa. In addition, German and Ottoman agents encouraged rebellions against the Allies in Libya and Morocco (which had been annexed by France in 1912) and these regions were barely controlled when war broke out in Europe, providing light weapons via U-Boats sailing from Empire's shores and Austria-Hungary or through neutral countries like Spain. The Senussi sect was particularly successful in the Sahara, expelling the Italians from Fezzan and tying British and French forces in the frontier regions of Egypt and Algeria. Ottoman soldiers continued to stay in the region until the early months of 1919. Berber revolts in Morocco and Libya would continue well after the end of the war, till their final suppression in the late 1920s, by Rodolfo Graziani who commanded the Italian forces in pacifying the Senussi. During this "pacification" tens of thousands Libyan prisoners (Sasuni) died.[13] When the WWI was over, Libya and Ottomans were torn apart.
Chronology
Prelude
Early July 1914, The political situation had changed dramatically after the events in Europe. Ottoman Empire forced to have a secret Ottoman-German Alliance on 2 August 1914, followed by another treaty with Bulgaria. Ottoman War ministry developed two major plans. Bronsart von Schellendorf began to revise a plan and completed it on 6 September 1914. Accordingly, the Fourth Army was to attack Egypt, whereas the Third Army would launch an offensive against the Russians in Eastern Anatolia. In the Ottoman Army there was a dissident to Schellendorf. The most voiced opinion was Schellendorf planned a war which benefited the German operations rather than taking account the conditions of the Ottoman Empire. Hafız Hakkı presented the second campaign plan. This plan was much more aggressive, but took the conflicts to opposing side. This plan concentrated on Russia, and based on forces to be shipped to the eastern Black Sea coast, where they would develop an offensive against Russians. Hafız Hakkı’s plan shelved because the Ottoman Army had not enough resources. Schellendorf plan which was fought in the Ottoman territory had direct consequences to Empire's own people. Schellendorf’s "Primary Campaign Plan" became the dominant choice. It was proven later that his plan also challenged with lack of resources, but he had a better concentration plan for organizing the command and control of the army and positioning it to execute the plans, also a better mobilization plan for generating forces and preparing them for war. Among some historical documents within the Ottoman War minister's archives today are the War plans drafted by General Bronsart von Schellendorf, dated 7 October 1914, included Ottoman support to the Bulgarian army, a secret operation on Romania and Ottoman soldier's landing in Odessa and Crimea with the support of German Navy.
During July 1914, there were negotiations between the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and Armenians at the Armenian congress at Erzurum. The public conclusion of this congress was "Ostensibly conducted to peaceful advance Armenian demands by legitimate means".[14] The CUP regarded the congress as the seedbed for establishing the decision of insurrection.[15] Historian Erikson concluded that after this meeting the CUP was convinced on strong Armenian — Russian links with detailed plans aimed at the detachment of the region from the Ottoman Empire.[15]
On October 29, 1914, The Ottoman Empire's engagement with the first armed conflict with Allies occured when German battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau, operating under Ottoman flag shelled the Russian Black Sea port of Odessa, after the Pursuit of Goeben and Breslau.
1914
Mesopotamian Campaign: The campaign was fought mainly in the Tigris River valley region of what is now Iraq, and included battles on the Persian Gulf coast, at Basra, and numerous struggles around Kut and Baghdad.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russian and Ottoman armies fought in the Caucasus and eastern Anatolia (northeastern Turkey), with the Ottoman Empire suffering a crushing defeat at the Battle of Sarikamis in November-December.
1915
Mesopotamian Campaign: Initially the Ottomans successfully repelled the British incursions. However, fortunes reversed after the disastrous Siege of Kut.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russians went on the offensive, advancing as far as Lake Van, but the Ottoman forces were ultimately able to drive them back. Ottoman repression of the Armenian population in Anatolia, who had evinced pro-Russian sentiments, grew into what is now called the Armenian Genocide. The fighting was largely inconclusive as the focus of the Ottoman and Russian war effort shifted to the Dardanelles Campaign and the Eastern Front respectively.
Dardanelles Campaign: the campaign, which began on April 25, took place at on the Gallipoli Peninsula on the European side of the Dardanelles (tr:Çanakkale Savaşları), and is commonly referred to in Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland simply as "Gallipoli". The British and French mounted a combined operation with the goal of capturing the Ottoman capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). The campaign started with a Naval attempt to force the Dardanelles. When this failed the Allies decided to seize the European side of the Dardanelles with an amphibious assault. The troops were able to land but could not dislodge the Ottoman forces after months of battle that caused the deaths of an estimated 131,000 soldiers, and 262,000 wounded. Eventually the Allied forces withdrew. The campaigning represented something of a coming of age for Australia and New Zealand who celebrate April 25 as ANZAC Day. Kemal Ataturk, who would go on to become the first leader of modern Turkey distinguished himself as a Lieut. Colonel in the Ottoman forces there.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman Empire tried to seize the Suez Canal in Egypt with the First Suez Offensive and they supported the recently deposed Abbas II of Egypt, but were pulled back by the British on both goals.
Arab Revolt: The British, based in Egypt, began to incite the Arabs living in Hejaz near the Red Sea and inland to revolt to expel the Ottoman forces from what is the modern-day Saudi Arabian peninsula.
1916
Arab Revolt: In 1916, a combination of diplomacy and genuine dislike of the new leaders of the Ottoman Empire (the Three Pashas) convinced Sherif Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca to begin a revolt. He gave the leadership of this revolt to two of his sons: Faisal and Abdullah, though the planning and direction for the war was largely the work of Lawrence of Arabia.
Caucasus Campaign: The Russian offensive in northeastern Turkey started with a victory at Battle of Koprukoy and culminated with the capture of Erzurum in February and Trabzon in April. By the Battle of Erzincan the Third Army was no longer capable of launching an offensive nor could it stop the advance of the Russian Army.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman forces launched a second attack across the Sinai with the objective of destroying or capturing the Suez Canal. Both this and the earlier attack (1915) were unsuccessful, though not very costly by the standards of the Great War. The British then went on the offensive, attacking east into Palestine. However, two failed attempts to capture the Ottoman fort of Gaza resulted in sweeping changes to the British command and the arrival of General Allenby, along with many reinforcements.
1917
Mesopotamian Campaign: British Empire forces reorganized and captured Baghdad in March 1917.
Caucasus Campaign: On December 16, The Armistice of Erzincan (Erzincan Cease-fire Agreement) was signed which officially brought the end to the hostilities between Ottoman Empire and Russians. The Special Transcaucasian Committee also endorsed the agreement.
Arab Revolt: The Sinai and Palestine Campaign was dominated with the success of the revolt. The revolt aided the General Allenby's 1917's operations.
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: Late in 1917, Allenby's Egyptian Expeditionary Force smashed the Ottoman defenses and captured Gaza, and then captured Jerusalem just before Christmas. While strategically of minimal importance to the war, this event was key in the subsequent creation of Israel as a separate nation in 1948.
1918
Sinai and Palestine Campaign: The Ottoman Empire could be defeated with campaigns in Palestine and Mesopotamia and the Spring Offensive delayed the expected attack. General Allenby was given brand new divisions recruited from India. The British achieved complete control of the air. General Liman von Sanders had no clear idea where the British were going to attack. Compounding the problems, withdrew their best troops to Caucasus Campaign. General Allenby finally launched the Battle of Megiddo, with the Jewish Legion under his command. Ottoman troops started a full scale retreat.
Arab Revolt: T. E. Lawrence and his Arab fighters staged many hit-and-run attacks on supply lines and tied down thousands of soldiers in garrisons throughout Palestine, Jordan, and Syria.
Caucasus Campaign: On March 3, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR which stipulated that Bolshevik Russia cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan to Ottoman Empire. The Trabzon Peace Conference held between March and April among the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Transcaucasian Diet (Transcaucasian Sejm) and government. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk united the Armenian-Georgian block[16]. Democratic Republic of Armenia declared the existence of a state of war between the Ottoman Empire[16]. In early May, 1918, the Ottoman army faced the Armenian Corps of Armenian National Councils which soon declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia. The Ottoman army captured Trabzon, Erzurum, Kars, Van, and Batumi. The conflict led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. Although the Armenians managed to inflict a defeat on the Ottomans at the Battle of Sardarapat, the Ottoman army won the later battle and scattered the Armenian army. The fight with Democratic Republic of Armenia ended with the sign the Treaty of Batum in June, 1918. However throughout the summer of 1918, under the leadership of Andranik Toros Ozanian Armenians in the mountainous Karabag region resisted the Ottoman 3th army and established the Republic of Mountainous Armenia[17]. The Army of Islam avoided Georgia and marched to the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic. They got as far as Baku on the Caspian Sea. They threw the British out in September 1918 with the Battle of Baku.
Aftermath
On October 30 1918, The Armistice of Mudros, signed on aboard HMS Agamemnon in Mudros port on the island of Lemnos with the Ottoman Empire and Triple Entente. Ottoman activities at all the active campaigns terminated.
Military occupation
On November 13 1918, the Occupation of Constantinople (present day Istanbul) of the capital of the Ottoman Empire happened by the French troops followed by British troops the next day. The occupation had two stages: the de facto stage from November 13 1918 to March 20 1920, and the de jure stage from de facto to the days following the Treaty of Lausanne. The occupation of Istanbul along with the occupation of İzmir, mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement and the Turkish War of Independence[18].
Peace Treaty
On 18 January 1919, the negotiations for a peace began with the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The negotiations for a peace treaty continued at the Conference of London, and took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at the San Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain, however, had secretly begun the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915. The Ottoman Government representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres on August 10, 1920, however, treaty was not sent to Ottoman Parliament for ratification, as Parliament was abolished on March 18 1920 by the British, during the occupation of Istanbul. The treaty was never ratified by the Ottoman Empire[19][20] The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
Casualties
Timeline
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Footnotes
- ^ Austro-Hungarian Army in the Ottoman Empire 1914-1918
- ^ Jung Peter, Austro-Hungarian Forces in World War 1 (Part 1),(Osprey, 2003), p.47
- ^ a b c d Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War By Huseyin (FRW) Kivrikoglu, Edward J. Erickson Page 211
- ^ The Treaty of Alliance Between Germany and Turkey 2 August, 1914
- ^ "Sarıkamış Harekatı (22 Aralık 1914 – 15 Ocak 1915)". General Staff (in Turkish). Turkish Armed Forces. Retrieved October 25 2008.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|dateformat=ignored (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Hinterhoff, Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia, pp.499-503
- ^ a b c The Encyclopedia Americana, 1920, v.28, p.403
- ^ Template:Harvard reference
- ^ R. G. Hovannisian. Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1967, pg. 59
- ^ The Hugh Chisholm, 1920, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Company ltd., twelve edition p.198.
- ^ a b Avetoon Pesak Hacobian, 1917, Armenia and the War, p.77
- ^ Template:Harvard reference
- ^ Italian atrocities in world war two | Education | The Guardian:# Rory Carroll # The Guardian, # Monday June 25 2001
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 244
- ^ a b (Erickson 2001, pp. 97)
- ^ a b Richard Hovannisian "The Armenian people from ancient to modern times" Pages 292-293
- ^ Mark Malkasian, Gha-Ra-Bagh": the emergence of the national democratic movement in Armenia page 22
- ^ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919
- ^ Sunga, Lyal S. (1992-01-01). Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-1453-0.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Bernhardsson, Magnus (2005-12-20). Reclaiming a Plundered Past: archaeology and nation building in modern Iraq. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70947-1.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)
Bibliography
- Erickson, Edward J. (2001). Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313315169.
Further reading
- David R. Woodward: Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East. Lexington 2006, ISBN 978-0-8131-2383-7
- W.E.D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, Caucasian Battlefields, A History of Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828-1921, Nashville, TN, 1999 (reprint). ISBN 0898392969</ref>
- The Anglo-Russian Entente:Agreement concerning Persia 1907
- The French, British and Russian joint declaration over the situation in Armenia published on May 24, 1915
- Sykes-Picot Agreement 15 & 16 May, 1916.
- The Middle East during World War I By Professor David R Woodward for the BBC
- [1] War in Africa and the middle east.