Jump to content

Cologne War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Auntieruth55 (talk | contribs) at 15:59, 10 July 2009 (→Cause of the war: addition of para on arcchbishopric). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Cologne War
Part of Eighty Years War, also called The Dutch Revolt

Destruction of Godesberg during the Cologne War 1583
Date1583-1588
Location
Electorate of Cologne
Result Catholic victory
Belligerents
Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg Ernst of Bavaria
Commanders and leaders

Johann Casimir of Simmern

Adolf von Neuenahr		 Ferdinand of Bavaria



The Cologne War, 1583-1588, also called the Seneschal War or the Seneschal Upheaval, was fought primarily by selected troops of the archbishop of Cologne and his allies, primarily the Palatine, against those of the Duchy of Bavaria and its ally, Spain.

The war was a major test of the principles of, first, Cuius regio, eius religio (literally, whose realm, his religion, or, figuratively, in the Prince’s land, the Prince’s religion) and, second, ecclesiastical reservation, two important agreements established by the Augsburg Religious Peace (1555).

The conflict occurred within the larger context of the Eighty Years War, also called the Dutch Revolt, from about 1550 to 1650. The territory of the Electorate of Cologne lay strategically on the Rhine and close to the borders of the Spanish Netherlands and the United Provinces; this proximity led to the involvement of both the Spanish, the Dutch, the English, and the French in Cologne affairs. The competing election of Ernst of Bavaria as archbishop in 1583 insured that the Wittelsbach family's diplomatic, military, and dynastic resources would also be engaged. The war resulted in the consolidation of Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories, the establishment of a Catholic stronghold on the lower Rhine, and the consolidation of Spanish bridgeheads on the Rhine river.

Background

Two events of the 1550s influenced the emergence of conflict in Cologne. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) marked the end of organized military conflict between Protestants and Catholics, but its limitations did not address the emerging trend toward religious pluralism throughout the German-speaking lands of the Holy Roman Empire. Second, in 1556, Charles V abdicated, and split the Habsburg territories between his son, Philip, and his brother, Ferdinand.

Religious divisions in the Empire

Further information: Peace of Augsburg

The idea of religious pluralism, in which individuals could adhere to a faith dictated by conscience, is a modern invention. Prior to the 16th century, there was one faith in a European Christian land, and that was the Catholic faith. The church was holy, ordained by God, and universal. Martin Luther’s agenda called for the reform of the church, but not necessarily of the faith. Initially dismissed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V as an “argument between monks,” the idea of reformation of the Church accentuated controversies and problems in many of the territories of the Holy Roman Empire. The reform theology galvanized social action in the Peasant Revolts (1524 1526), which were brutally repressed. In 1531, several of the Lutheran princes formed the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance in which they agreed to protect themselves and each other from territorial encroachment, and which functioned as a political alliance against Catholic princes and armies.[1]

It was broadly understood by princes and clergy alike that institutional abuses hindered the practices of the faithful.[2] A council to examine abuses and to suggest and implement reforms had been called by Pope Paul III for 1537; despite efforts by Charles V and Pope Paul, who initiated several internal institutional reforms, efforts to unify the two strands of belief failed, largely of different concepts of “Church” and justification. [3] The Schmalkaldic League called its own ecumenical council in 1537, and set forward several precepts of faith; in addition, Philipp Melancthon wrote a scathing condemnation of the papal authority, labeling the pope as the anti-Christ.[4] By the mid 1540s, Catholic and Lutheran adherents seemed further apart than ever; in only a few towns and cities were Lutherans and Catholics able to live together in any sort of harmony, such as Augsburg, Donauwörth and Donaueschingen. Political disagreements overlapped with religious issues, making any kind of peace seem remote.[5]

The Treaty of Augsburg, then, became a primary mechanism for peace, if not unity, in the German states. Through it, three important principles were established. First, the principle of Cuius regio, eius religio provided for internal religious unity within a state: the religion of the prince became the religion of the state and all its inhabitants. Those inhabitants who could not conform to the prince's religion were allowed to leave, an innovative idea in the 16th century. The second principle covered the special status of the ecclesiastical states, ecclesiastical reservation. If the prelate of an ecclesiastic state changed his religion, the men and women living in that state did not have to do so. Instead, the prelate was expected to resign from his post, although this was not spelled out in the Treaty. The third primary principle, know as Ferdinand's declaration (named after Charles V's brother, who negotiated the treaty), exempted knights and some of the cities of ecclesiastical princes, if the reformed religion had been practiced there since the mid–1520s. Furthermore, it allowed for a few mixed cities and towns, where Catholics and Lutherans had lived together. Thus the Treaty of Augsburg became the legitimating legal document governing the co-existence of Lutheran and Catholic faiths in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire.[6]

Charles V's abdication

In 1556, Charles amid great pomp, and leaning on the shoulder of one of his favorites, the 24 year old William, Count of Nassau and Orange,[7] Charles gave his Spanish empire, which included Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Milan and Spain's possessions in the Americas to his son, Philip. His brother, Ferdinand, who had negotiated the treaty in the previous year, was already in possession of the Austrian lands. He was also the obvious candidate to succeed Charles as Holy Roman Emperor.

Charles' choices were apt. Philip was culturally Spanish, having been born in Valladolid, he spoke Spanish, and he preferred to live in Spain. Ferdinand, having negotiated peace terms with the German princes the previous year, was familiar with, and to, the other princes of the Holy Roman Empire. Although he had been born in Spain, he had been administering his brother's affairs in the Empire since 1531, in which year he had been proclaimed as Roman King, a title usually reserved for the next Emperor. Ferdinand had also been touched by the reformed philosophies, and was probably the closest the Holy Roman Empire ever came to a protestant emperor.

Cause of the war

As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire, the Electorate of Cologne (Template:Lang-de or Kurköln) included the temporal possessions of the Archbishop of Cologne (Template:Lang-de). It was ruled by an archbishop in his function as prince-elector of the empire. As an elector, he was one of the men who selected the emperor from among a group of imperial candidates. The capitals of the electorate were Cologne (until 1288) and then the smaller city of Bonn, approximately Template:Km to mi south of Cologne, on the Rhine River. The position of archbishop was usually held by a scion of nobility, although not necessarily a priest. He was elected by the Cathedral chapter of canons, and could, if he wished, take holy orders.

The conversion of the Archbishop of Cologne Gebhard, Seneschal of Waldburg to Protestantism, and the subsequent implication that this conversion would transform the important city into a secular, dynastic duchy, triggered repercussions throughout the Holy Roman Empire. His conversion had widespread implications for the future of the Holy Roman Empire’s electoral process: the Imperial Electors chose the successors of to the imperial crown of the Empire. Established by the Golden Bull of 1356, seven electors selected the future emperor. This included four secular electors of Bohemia, Brandenburg, Palatine of the Rhine, and Saxony balanced with three spiritual electors: the Archbishop of Mainz, the Archbishop of Trier, and the Archbishop of Cologne. Each elector controlled some of the richest territories in the Holy Roman Empire. The presence of at least three Catholic electors, who oversaw some of the most prosperous territory in the empire, guaranteed the delicate balance of Catholic and Protestant in the college.[8]

Furthermore, under the established principle of ecclesiastical reservation, Gebhard’s conversion raised questions of leadership within the city and the chapter of ecclesiastics at the cathedral. Other archbishops of Cologne had also converted to Protestantism, but Hermann von Wied and Salentin von Isenburg-Grenzau had resigned from their office upon their conversion. Unlike his predecessors, Gebhard proclaimed the Reformation, in the style of Calvinism, from the city’s Catholic cathedral, angering the city’s Catholic leadership and alienating the Cathedral chapter. He placed the evangelical confession on parity with the Catholic one; furthermore, Gebhard adhered to the teachings of John Calvin, not Martin Luther; Calvinism was not a form of religious observation approved in the Augsburg conventions of 1555.

Gebhard von Waldburg-Trauchburg, whose conversion to Protestantism, subsequent marriage, and refusal to resign from the See, triggered the war

When Gebhard married the Protestant countess Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben, a former abbess with whom he had conducted an affair since circa 1579, Pope Gregory XIII excommunicated him on February 2, 1583 and the chapter deposed him.[9] The chapter elected the 29 year old canon, Ernst of Bavaria, brother of the William V, Duke of Bavaria, to fill the vacancy, thus insuring the involvement of Wittelsbach diplomacy, troops, and funds in any potential military conflict.[10]

Course of the war

The war had three phases. In the initial phase, 1583–1584, the war was a localized conflict between supporters of Gebhard, and supporters of the Catholic core of the Cathedral chapter. The election of Ernst of Bavaria as a competing archbishop changed what had been a local conflict into a larger one; Ernst's election guaranteed the military, diplomatic, and financial interest of the Wittelsbach family in Cologne's local problems. After the deaths of the Elector Palatine in 1583 and William the Silent in 1584, the conflict shifted gears again, attracting the attention of the Spanish, trying to secure their own interests in the Netherlands, the French, trying to destabilize Spanish efforts in the Lowlands. By 1588, Gebhard had been pushed out of all the territory of the electorate, and in 1589 he took refuge in Strasbourg, where he stayed for the remainder of his life; Ernst assumed full charge of the Electorate of Cologne.

First Phase 1583–84

Gebhard had the foresight to gather some troops around him, and hoped to recruit support from the Lutheran princes. Unfortunately for him, he had converted to another branch of the Reformed faith; such cautious Lutheran princes as Augustus I, Elector of Saxony balked at extending their military support to Calvinists and the Elector Palatine was unable to persuade him to join the cause.[11] Efforts to engage other important cities, such as Strasbourg, failed.[12] Eventually Gebhard called upon William the Silent, the Dutch Stadtholder, for assistance, drawing in the troops of the United Netherlands as well.[13]

Second Phase 1584-1585

In the second phase, after the election of Ernst of Bavaria as a competing archbishop, the conflict expanded to include Wittelsbach troops, under the command of Ernst's brother, Frederick. Bavarian troops over-ran Godesberg. Entire regions of states and cities were besieged and plundered, and several were destroyed. Three regions were completed overrun: Wevelinghoven, Hülchrath, Deutz, which lay across the Rhine River from the Cologne itself. By early summer of 1584, Rheinberg and Linz am Rhein had been taken.[14] Gebhard took refuge in Westphalia, Cologne's most eastern region, at the the fortress Werl.[15] By 1586, Gebhard’s forces were hard pressed and outnumbered by the Bavarian and Spanish forces and after the destruction of Bonn in late 1587, Gebhard retreated to The Hague, where he gave up the war in 1588.[16]

Third Phase 1585-1588

By 1585, conflict had spread to include not only the two competing archbishops and their supporters, but the revolting Dutch provinces and the Spanish authorities sent to subdue them. The territory of Cologne was strategically important to Spain; it offered another land route by which to approach the rebellious northern Provinces. Although the Spanish road from Spain's holdings on the Mediterranean shores led to its territories in what is today Belgium, it was a long, arduous march, complicated by the provisioning of troops and the potentially hostile populations of the territories through which it passed. An alternative route on the Rhine promised better access to the inland border of Holland and Gelderland. Philip II, and his generals, could be convinced to support Ernst's cause for such considerations.

The French, in turmoil over their own succession crisis and religious turmoil, viewed the possibility of the Spanish securing a bridgehead in the middle and lower Rhine with approbation.

Aftermath

His victory confirmed Ernst of Bavaria as the new archbishop of Cologne, giving the Wittelsbach family a foothold on the northern Rhine, and confirming the Catholic oligarchy in the city.[17] Ernst's presence there, and the presence of his four Wittelsbach successors until 1761, also strengthened the position of the family in Imperial politics.[18] The victory of the Catholic party further strengthened the Catholic counter-reformation in the northwest territories of the Holy Roman Empire, especially in the bishoprics of Liege, Munster, Paderborn, Osnabruck and Minden, which were surrounded by Protestant territories. [19] In addition, the use of troops from the Spanish Netherlands, on the Catholic side, and the Netherlands, on the Protestant side, „internationalized“ the German confessional problem, which came to a crisis in the Thirty Years War, and was not resolved until 1650.[20]

Literature

  1. ^ Hajo Holborn, A History of Modern Germany, The Reformation, Princeton, 1959. pp. 152&ndash:246.
  2. ^ Holborn, Chapter 6.
  3. ^ Hubert Jedin, Konciliengeschichte, Herder, Freiburg, 85.
  4. ^ Holborn, Chapter 9.
  5. ^ Holborn, chapters 9-11.
  6. ^ Holborn, pp.243–246.
  7. ^ J. Thorold Rogers, The Story of Nations: Holland, London, 1889; J. Romein and A Romein-Verschoor, Erflaters van onze beschaving. Amsterdam 1938-1940, p. 150. (Dutch, at DBNL).
  8. ^ Holborn, pp. 291–247.
  9. ^ N.M. Sutherland, Origins of the Thirty Years War and the Structure of European Politics. The English Historical Review, Vol. 107, No. 424 (Jul., 1992), pp. 587-625, p. 606.
  10. ^ Holborn, pp. 288–289.
  11. ^ Holborn, p. 288.
  12. ^ Theodor V. Brodek, '"Socio-Political Realities in the Holy Roman Empire," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 1(3) (Spring, 1971), pp. 395–405, 401.
  13. ^ Holborn, p. 288–89; Sutherland, p. 606.
  14. ^ Max Lossen, Der Kölnische Krieg, volume 1: Vorgeschichte 1561–1581, Gotha 1882; 2: 1582–1586.
  15. ^ Lossen, v. 2.
  16. ^ Lossen, v. 2.
  17. ^ Brodek, pp. 400–401.
  18. ^ Charles George Herbermann, "Cologne," The Catholic encyclopedia, v. 4, pub. 1913, p. 118; Brodek, p. 401.
  19. ^ Robert W. Scribner, "Why Was There No Reformation in Cologne?" Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 49(1976): 217–241.
  20. ^ Geoffrey Parker, The Thirty Years Wars, 1618–1648.

Template:De

Short explanation of the war (in German)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Cologne_War&oldid=301389869"