Ramayana

For the television series by Ramanand Sagar, see Ramayan (TV series).

Rama (right) seated on the shoulders of Hanuman, battles the demon-king Ravana.

The Ramayana (Devanāgarī: रामायण, Rāmāyaṇa) is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is attributed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon (smṛti). The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India, the other being Mahabharata. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the ideal king.

The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound of Rāma and ayana "going, advancing", translating to "Rama's Journey". The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books, and 500 cantos (kāṇḍas), and tells the story of Rama (an incarnation of the Hindu preserver-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon (Rakshasa) king of Lanka, Ravana. Thematically, the epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of dharma.

Verses in Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anustubh. The epic was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Indian life and culture, primarily through its establishment of the shloka meter. Like its epic cousin the Mahābhārata, however, the Ramayana is not just an ordinary story: it contains the teachings of ancient Hindu sages and presents them through allegory in narrative and the interspersion of the philosophical and the devotional. The characters of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana (the villain of the piece) are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India.

Textuality

Traditionally, Ramayana is ascribed to a Valmiki, regarded as India's first poet. The Indian tradition, is unanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet, the brahman sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama and a peripheral actor in the epic drama. The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana, written around 4th century B.C. According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time, known as Treta Yuga.

In the form we have it today, Valmiki Ramayana is an epic poem of some 50,000 lines retelling in Sanskrit verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which appears to date from the eleventh century A.D. The text has several regional renderings, recensions and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions—the northern (N) and the southern (S). Famous recensions include, the Ramayanam of Kamban in Tamil (ca. 11th-12th century) and Ramacharitamanas by Tulasidas in Hindi (c. 16th century). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that, "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."

There have been speculations on whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were written by the original author. Many experts are of the opinion that they are integral parts of the book in spite of the many differences in style and some contradictions in content between these two chapters and the rest of the book.

Dating

According to literary scholarship, the main body of the Ramayana first appeared as an oral composition somewhere between 750 and 500 BC. Cultural evidence (the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana) suggests that the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata Traditionally the epic belongs to the Treta Yuga, one of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology, and is dated as far back as 880,000 years in the past. Rama is said to have been born in the Treta Yuga to King Daśaratha in Ikshuaku vansh (clan)

The core events told in the epic may well be of even greater age, the names of the characters, Rama, Sita, Dasaratha, Janaka, Vasishta and Vishwamitra are all known in the Vedic literature such as the Brahmanas which are older than the Valmiki Ramayana. However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to the modern academic view, Brahma, one of the main characters of Ramayana, and Vishnu, who according to Bala Kanda was incarnated as Rama are not Vedic deities, and come first into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the 'Puranic' period of the later 1st millennium AD. There is also a version of Ramayana, known as Ramopakhyana, found in the epic Mahabharata. This version, depicted as a narration to Yudhishtra, is devoid of any divine characteristics to Rama.

There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kanda and the last the Uttara Kanda are later additions. The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha region during the period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is known about the region. However, when the story moves to the Aranya Kanda and beyond, it seems to turn abruptly into fantasy with its demon-slaying hero and fantastic creatures. The geography of central and South India is increasingly vaguely described. The knowledge of the location of the island of Sri Lanka also lacks detail. Basing his assumption on these features, the historian H.D. Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for the composition of the text. A. L. Basham, however, is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief who lived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.

Characters

Rama seated with Sita, fanned by Lakshamana, while the monkey-god Hanuman pays his respects.

• Rama is the hero of this epic tale. He is portrayed as the seventh incarnation of the god Vishnu. He is the eldest and the favorite son of the King of Ayodhya, Dasharatha and his wife Kousalya. He is a popular prince loved by one and all. He is the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha, is forced by one of his wives Kaikeyi to command Rama to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile.
• Sita is the beloved wife of Rama and the daughter of king Janaka. Sita is also known as Janaki. She is the incarnation of goddess Lakshmi, the consort of god Vishnu. Sita is the epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and there gets abducted by Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka by Ravana. Rama rescues her by defeating the demon king Ravana. Later, she gives birth to Lava and Kusha, the heirs of Rama.
• Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is portrayed as an incarnation of god Shiva (the Eleventh Rudra). He is born as the son of Kesari, a vanara king and goddess Anjana. He worships Rama and helps find Sita by going to the kingdom of Lanka crossing the great ocean.
• Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is portrayed as an incarnation of the Shesha, the nāga associated with god Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama. He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Mareecha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita is abducted by Ravana upon him leaving her.
• Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-god Brahma that he could not be killed by either gods, demons or spirits. He has ten heads and twenty arms, the former of which he began to cut off and throw into the sacrificial fire until Brahma appeared to him. After getting his reward from Brahma, Ravana begins to lay waste the earth and disturbs the deeds of the good sages. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
• Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has three queens, Kousalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi, and three other sons; Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen forces him to make his son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into exile.
• Bharata is the son of Dasharatha. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and caused Dasharatha to die broken hearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama to the forest. When Rama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals and places them on the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the next fourteen years.
• Shatrughna is the son of Dasaratha, and his third wife, Queen Sumithra. He is the youngest brother of Lord Rama and also the twin brother of Lakshmana.

Synopsis

The poem is traditionally divided into several major kandas or books, that deal chronologically with the major events in the life of Rama—Bala kanda, Ayodhya Kanda, Aranya Kanda, Kishkinda Kanda, Sundara Kanda, Yuddha Kanda, and Uttara Kanda. The Bala Kanda describes the birth of Rama, his childhood and marriage to Sita. The Ayodhya Kanda describes the preparations for Rama's coronation and his exile into forest. The third part, Aranya Kanda describes the forest life of Rama and the kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana. The fourth book, Kishkinda Kanda describes the meeting of Hanuman with Rama, destruction of vanara king Vali and the coronation of his younger brother Sugriva on the throne of kingdom Kishkindha. The fifth book is Sundara Kanda, narrates the heroism of Hanuman, his flight to Lanka and meeting with Sita. The sixth book, Yuddha Kanda, describes the battle between Rama's and Ravana's armies. The last book, Uttara Kanda, describes the birth of Lava and Kusha to Sita, their coronation to the throne of Ayodhya and Rama's final departure from the world.

Bala Kanda

Main article: Balakanda

The birth of four sons of Dasaratha

Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, the capital being the city of Ayodhya. He had three queens—Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumithra. He was childless for a long time, and anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrifice known as Putra-Kameshti Yagna. As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi and Sumithra gives birth to twins named Lakshmana and Shatrughna. These sons are infused with varying portions of the essence of god Vishnu, born as a ordinary mortal to destroy the demon king Ravana. They are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is sixteen years old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasaratha in search of help against demons, who disturbed the sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana—his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions from Vishwamitra and also supernatural weapons, from which they destroy the demons.

Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king Janaka in the deep furrow dug by this plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of god". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. When Sita was of marriageable age, the king decided to have a swayamvara which had a contest. The king placed a heavy bow, presented to him by god Shiva and anyone who could wield the bow would marry Sita. The sage Vishwamitra attends the swayamvara with Rama and Lakshmana. Only Rama wields the bow and breaks it. Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasarahta and daughters, nieces of Janaka. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.

Ayodhya Kanda

After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, Dasharatha who had grown old expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exile into wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands. Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me." After Rama's departure, king Dasaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mothers' wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his fathers orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals, and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.

Aranya Kanda

Ravana kidnapping Sita and fighting Jatayu - By Raja Ravi Varma

Rama, Sita and Lakshmana journeyed southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they built cottages and lived by what the forest had to offer. At the Panchavati forest, they are visited by rakshasa woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana. She attempts to seduce the brothers and failing in this, tries to kill Sita. Lakshmana, stops her and mutilates her. Later her demon brother Khara, organizes a expedition against the princes. Rama annihilates these demons and Khara. The news of these events reach Ravana, and resolves to destroy Rama by carrying off Sita. With the aid of rakshasa Maricha. Maricha—who assumes the form of a golden deer—captivates Sita's attention and is followed by Rama into the woods. Later, urged by Sita, Lakshmana disregarding Rama's orders, leaves Sita alone and follows him. Now Ravana appears in the disguise of a beggar and forcefully carries Sita. Jatayu, a vulture tries to rescue Sita and falls mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept in the heavy guard of rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita to marry him, but Sita who was forever devoted to Rama, refuses. Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu, and immediately set out searching for Sita. During their search, they meet Shabari, a woman ascetic directs them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.

Kishkindha Kanda

The Kishkindha Kanda is set in the monkey citadel of Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the greatest of monkey heroes and a adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him win over his brother Vali and regain the kingdom of Kiskindha. In exchange for the help received from Rama, Sugriva sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angad and Hanuman, learns from a vulture named Sampati, that Sita was taken to Lanka.

Sundara Kanda

Main article: Sundara Kanda

Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the tree.

The Sundara Kanda forms of the heart of the Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's adventures. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the ocean to Lanka. Here, Hanuman, explores the demon's city and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka vana (Ashoka grove), who is wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama, however she refuses, reluctant to allow herself to be willingly touched by a male other than her husband. She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction.

Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka, by destroying trees, buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire. But, Hanuman escapes his bounds and leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes the giant leap back. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.

Yuddha Kanda

The War of Lanka by Sahibdin

This book describes the Yudha (battle) between forces between Rama and Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The monkeys construct a bridge (known as Rama Setu) across the ocean, and the princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy battle ensues and Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo agni Pariksha (test of fire) to prove her purity, since she stayed at the demon's place. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lord of fire raises carrying unharmed Sita on the throne, to testify her purity. The episode of agni pariksha has variations in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki, Tulsidas. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed.

Uttara Kanda

Sita in the Hermitage of Valmiki

The Uttara Kanda concerns the final years of Rama, Sita and his brothers. After being crowned as the king, many years passed pleasantly with Sita. However, despite the agni pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumors about her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya. As a king, Rama bows before the public opinion and forces himself to banish Sita into the forest, where sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here she gives birth to twin boys—Lava and Kusha, who became pupils of Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity. Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, to which sage Valmiki with Lava and Kusha attend it. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama becomes grievous, and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opens, she vanishes into it. Rama also learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Later a messenger from the gods appear and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestial abode. The Uttara Kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki.

Influence on culture and art

An Ramlila actor the traditional attire of Ravana

One of the most important literary works on ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Brahminical temples. It has also inspired great quantities of latter-day literature in various languages, notable among which are the Kambaramayanam by Tamil poet Kambar of the 13th century, Molla ramayanam in Telugu and the 14th century Kannada poet Narahari Kavi's Torave Ramayan, fifteenth century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha, known as the Krittivasi Ramayan and the sixteenth century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas. The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India, and many places across the globe with Indian diaspora.

Variant versions

The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama and Ravana.

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in North India differs in important respects from that preserved in South India and the rest of South-East Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the Ramayana in Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia and Maldives. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana.

Within India

The seventh century CE "Bhatti's Poem" Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi, is a Sanskrit retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.

There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the twelfth century AD, Kamban wrote Ramavatharam, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulasidas in 1576(17th century-1632AD) , an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti. It is an acknowledged masterpiece of India. It is popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include, a Bengali version by Krittivas in the 16th century, in Oriya by Balarama Das in the 15th century, in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century, a Telugu version by Ranganatha in the 15th century, a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by the 16th century poet Narahari and in 20th century Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshnam, Kotha Ramayana in Assamese by the 15th century poet Madhava Kandali and Adhyathma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan in the 16th century.

There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India relates to the adventures of Ahi Ravana and Mahi Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave, ready to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali.

Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep—has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana in some of its songs. These songs, known as Mappila Ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the next orally. In Mappila Ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has been changed into that of a sultan, and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama's which is `Laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the Mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.

In Nepal

Two versions of Ramayana are present in Nepal. One is written by Mahakabhi Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa. The other one is written by Aadikavi Bhanubhakta Acharya. The Nepal Bhasa version by Siddhidas Mahaju marks a great point in the renaissance of Nepal Bhasa whereas the one of Bhanubhakta Acharya is the first epic of Nepali.

Southeast Asian versions

Many other Asian cultures have adapted the Ramayana, resulting in other national epics. Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa is an old Javanese rendering of the Sanskrit Ramayana from ninth century Indonesia. It is a faithful rendering of the Hindu epic with very little variation. Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Dasharatha is the great-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma. In many Malay language versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhat weak.

Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (T'os'akanth (=Dasakanth) and Mont'o). Vibhisana (P'ip'ek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. So Ravana has her thrown into the waters, who, later, is picked by Janaka (Janok). While the main story is identical to that of the Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography, and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at the Wat Phra Kaew temple in Bangkok.

Other Southeast Asian adaptations include Ramakavaca of Bali (Indonesia), Maharadia Lawana and Darangen of Mindanao (Philippines), the Reamker of Cambodia and the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar. Aspects of the Chinese epic Journey to the West were also inspired by the Ramayana, particularly the character Sun Wukong, who is believed to have been based on Hanuman.

Theological significance

Deities Sita (far right), Rama (center), Lakshmana (far left) and Hanuman (below seated) at Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford, England.

Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is a popular deity worshiped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace his journey through India, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument, it serves as an integral part of Hinduism, and is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it, or certain passages of it, is believed by the Hindus to free them from sin and shower blessings upon the reader or listener. According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar), of the god Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on Earth.

Contemporary versions

File:Hanumantha.jpg

Hanuman as depicted in Yakshagana, popular folk art of Karnataka

Contemporary prose versions of the epic Ramayana include Sri Ramayana Darshanam by Dr. K. V. Puttappa in Kannada and Ramayana Kalpavrikshamu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana in Telugu, both of which have been awarded the Jnanpith Award. A prose version called Geet Ramayan in Marathi by G.D. Madgulkar was rendered in music by Sudhir Phadke and is considered to be a masterpiece of Marathi literature. The popular Indian author R. K. Narayan wrote a shortened prose interpretation of the epic, and another modern Indian author, Ashok Banker, has so far written a series of six English-language novels based on the Ramayana. In addition, Ramesh Menon wrote a single-volume edition of the Ramayana, which has received praise from scholars.

In September 2006, the first issue of Ramayan 3392 A.D. was published by Virgin Comics, featuring the Ramayana as re-envisioned by author Deepak Chopra and filmmaker Shekhar Kapur.

The Ramayana has been adapted on screen as well, most notably as the television series Ramayan by producer Ramanand Sagar, which is based primarily off of the Ramcharitmanas and Valmiki's Ramayana and, at the time, was the most popular series in Indian television history. In the late 1990s, Sanjay Khan made a series called Jai Hanuman, recounting tales from the life of Hanuman and related characters from the Ramayana. A Japanese animated film called Rama - The Prince of Light was also released in the early 1990s. US animation artist Nina Paley retold the Ramayana from Sita's point of view (with a secondary story about Paley's own marriage) in the animated musical Sita Sings the Blues.

See also

• Ramavataram

References

• Bhattacharji, Sukumari (1998). Legends of Devi. Orient Blackswan. p. 111. ISBN 9788125014386.
• Brockington, John (2003), "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood, Gavin (ed.), Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 116–128, ISBN 0-631-21535-2
• Dutt, Romesh C. (2004). Ramayana. Kessinger Publishing. p. 208. ISBN 9781419143878.
• Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2002). The Ramayana and Mahabharata condensed into English verse. Courier Dover Publications. p. 352. ISBN 9780486425061.
• Fallon, Oliver (2009). Bhatti’s Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya). New York: New York University Press, Clay Sanskrit Library. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2.
• Keshavadas, Sadguru Sant (1988). Ramayana at a Glance. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. p. 211. ISBN 9788120805453.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Goldman, Robert P. (1990). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda. Princeton University Press. p. 456. ISBN 9780691014852.
• Goldman, Robert P. (1994). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Kiskindhakanda. Princeton University Press. p. 416. ISBN 9780691066615.
• Goldman, Robert P. (1996). The Ramayana of Valmiki: Sundarakanda. Princeton University Press. p. 576. ISBN 9780691066622.
• Prabhavananda, Swami (1979). Spiritual Heritage of India. Vedanta Press. p. 374. ISBN 9780874810356.
• Sundararajan, K.R. (1989). "The Ideal of Perfect Life : The Ramayana". In Krishna Sivaraman, Bithika Mukerji (ed.). Hindu spirituality: Vedas through Vedanta. The Crossroad Publishing Co. pp. 106–126. ISBN 9780824507558.
• William Buck, B. A (2000). Ramayana. University of California Press. p. 432. ISBN 9780520227033. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Milner Rabb, Kate, National Epics, 1896 - See eText Project Gutenburg
• Raghunathan, N. (Trans), Srimad Valmiki Ramayanam, Vighneswara Publishing House, Madras (1981)
• A different Song - Article from "The Hindu" August 12, 2005 - [1]
• Dr. Gauri Mahulikar Effect Of Ramayana On Various Cultures And Civilisations, Ramayan Institute
• Arya, Ravi Prakash (ed.). Ramayana of Valmiki: Sanskrit Text and English Translation. (English translation according to M. N. Dutt, introduction by Dr. Ramashraya Sharma, 4-volume set) Parimal Publications: Delhi, 1998 ISBN 81-7110-156-9
• Murthy, S. S. N. (2003). "A note on the Ramayana" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 10 (6). New Delhi: 1–18. ISSN 1084-7561. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Further reading

Original text Template:Sa icon

• रामायण (Devanagari version on Wikisource)

Translations

• Valmiki Ramayana translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith (1870-1874) ( Project Gutenberg )
• Complete Ramayana Translation (7 kandas) by R.C. Dutt (1899)
• Abridged Ramayana and Mahabharata by R.C. Dutt (1899)

External links

• Illustrated manuscript by Maharana Jagat Singh at British Library

Translations Template:En icon

• Word to Word Translation of Valmiki Ramayanam with Sanskrit Text and Audio
• Site with Valmiki Ramayana Text with Meaning Template:Sa icon/Template:En icon
• Ramacharita manas (Tulsidas' Ramayana) Template:Hi icon/Template:En icon

Research articles

• Siddhinathananda, Swami. "The Role of the Ramayana in Indian Cultural Lore". Vedanta Kesari.
• The storyboard of the Ramayana - discusses adaptations in other nations