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Idi Amin
File:Idi Amin.jpg
Idi Amin addresses the United Nations General Assembly in New York, 1975
3rd President of Uganda
In office
1971–1979
Vice PresidentMustafa Adrisi
Preceded byMilton Obote
Succeeded byYusufu Lule
Personal details
BornJanuary 1, 1925
Koboko or Kampala[A]
Died16 August 2003(2003-08-16) (aged 78)
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
NationalityUgandan
Spouse(s)Malyamu Amin (divorced)
Kay Amin (divorced)
Nora Amin (divorced)
Madina Amin
Sarah Amin
ProfessionMilitary officer

Idi Amin Dada (January 1, 1925[A] – 16 August 2003), commonly known as Idi Amin, was the President of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles, in 1946, and eventually held the rank of Major General and Commander of the Ugandan Army. Amin took power in a military coup in January 1971, deposing Milton Obote. From 1977 to 1979, Amin titled himself as "His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor[B] Idi Amin Dada, VC,[C] DSO, MC, Conqueror of the British Empire".[1] Which is a shortened version of his self proclaimed title "His Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Sea, and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular."[2]

Initially welcomed by Ugandans[citation needed], Amin's policies, including the expulsion of Indians and the nationalisation of businesses and industry, soon devastated the economy. His rule was characterised by human rights abuses, political repression, ethnic persecution, extrajudicial killings, nepotism, corruption and gross economic mismanagement. The number of people killed as a result of his regime is unknown; estimates from international observers and human rights groups range from 100,000[3] to 500,000.

Amin notable backers were Muammar al-Gaddafi's Libya, the Soviet Union, and East Germany[citation needed]. In 1975–1976, Amin became the Chairman of the Organization of African Unity, a pan-Africanist group designed to promote solidarity of the African states.[4] During the 1977–1979 period, Uganda was appointed to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.[5]

Dissent within Uganda, and Amin's attempt to annex the Kagera province of Tanzania in 1978, led to the Uganda-Tanzania War. Amin fled to Libya, before moving to Saudi Arabia in 1981, where he died in 2003.

Early life and military career

Amin never wrote an autobiography nor did he authorise any official written account of his life. There are discrepancies as to when and where he was born. Most biographical sources hold that he was born in either Koboko or Kampala around 1925.[A] According to Fred Guweddeko, a researcher at Makerere University, Idi Amin was the son of Andreas Nyabire (1889–1976). Nyabire, a member of the Kakwa ethnic group, converted from Roman Catholicism to Islam in 1910 and changed his name to Amin Dada. Abandoned by his father, Idi Amin grew up with his mother's family. Guweddeko states that Amin's mother was called Assa Aatte (1904–1970), an ethnic Lugbara and a traditional herbalist, who treated members of Buganda royalty, among others. Amin joined an Islamic school in Bombo in 1941. After a few years he left school and did odd jobs before being recruited to the army by a British colonial army officer.[6]

Chronology of Amin's military promotions
 
King's African Rifles
1946 Joins King's African Rifles
1947 Private
1952 Corporal
1954 Effendi (Warrant Officer)
1961 First Ugandan Commissioned Officer, Lieutenant
 
Uganda Army
1962 Captain
1963 Major
1964 Deputy Commander of the Army
1965 Colonel, Commander of the Army
1968 Major General
1971 Head of State
Chairman of the Defence Council
Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces
Army Chief of Staff and Chief of Air Staff
1975 Field Marshal

Colonial British army

Amin joined the King's African Rifles (KAR) of the British Colonial Army in 1946 as an assistant cook.[7] He claimed he was forced to join the Army during World War II and that he served in the Burma Campaign,[8] but records indicate he was first enlisted after the war was concluded.[1][9] He was transferred to Kenya for infantry service as a private in 1947 and served in the 21st KAR infantry battalion in Gilgil, Kenya, until 1949. That year, his unit was deployed to Somalia to fight the Somali Shifta rebels. In 1952 his brigade was deployed against the Mau Mau rebels in Kenya. He was promoted to corporal the same year, then to sergeant in 1953.[6]

In 1954 Amin was made effendi (warrant officer), the highest rank possible for a Black African in the colonial British army of that time. Amin returned to Uganda the same year and in 1961 he was promoted to lieutenant, becoming one of the first two Ugandans to become commissioned officers. He was then assigned to quell the cattle rustling between Uganda's Karamojong and Kenya's Turkana nomads. In 1962 he was promoted to captain and then, in 1963, to major. The following year, he was appointed Deputy Commander of the Army.[6]

Amin was an active athlete during his time in the army. 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) and powerfully built, he was the Ugandan light heavyweight boxing champion from 1951 to 1960, as well as a swimmer. Idi Amin was also a formidable rugby forward.[10][11] The British and Irish Lions nearly played Amin on their 1955 tour of South Africa, when he was selected as a reserve for the East Africa XV.[11] Amin did not however, get fielded during the game.

One officer said of him:

"Idi Amin is a splendid type and a good [rugby] player, but virtually bone from the neck up, and needs things explained in words of one letter."[11][12]

Army commander

In 1965 Prime Minister Milton Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle ivory and gold into Uganda from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The deal, as later alleged by General Nicholas Olenga, an associate of the former Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba, was part of an arrangement to help troops opposed to the Congolese government trade ivory and gold for arms supplies secretly smuggled to them by Amin. In 1966, Parliament demanded an investigation. Obote imposed a new constitution abolishing the ceremonial presidency held by Kabaka (King) Edward Mutesa II of Buganda, and declared himself executive president. He promoted Amin to colonel and army commander. Amin led an attack on the Kabaka's palace and forced Mutesa into exile to the United Kingdom, where he remained until his death in 1969.[13][14]

Amin began recruiting members of Kakwa, Lugbara, Nubian, and other ethnic groups from the West Nile area bordering Sudan. The Nubians had been residents in Uganda since the early 20th century, having come from Sudan to serve the colonial army. In Uganda, Nubians were commonly perceived as Sudanese foreigners and erroneously referred to as Anyanya (Anyanya were southern Sudanese rebels of the First Sudanese Civil War and were not involved in Uganda). Because many ethnic groups in northern Uganda inhabit both Uganda and Sudan, allegations persist that Amin's army consisted substantially of Sudanese soldiers.[15]

Seizure of power

Eventually, a rift developed between Amin and Obote, worsened by the support Amin had built within the army by recruiting from the West Nile region, his involvement in operations to support the rebellion in southern Sudan, and an attempt on Obote's life in 1969. In October 1970, Obote himself took control of the armed forces, reducing Amin from his months-old post of commander of all the armed forces to that of commander of the army.[16]

Having learned that Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds, Amin seized power in a military coup on 25 January 1971, while Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit meeting in Singapore. Troops loyal to Amin sealed off Entebbe International Airport, the main artery into Uganda, and took Kampala. Soldiers surrounded Obote's residence and blocked major roads. A broadcast on Radio Uganda accused Obote's government of corruption and preferential treatment of the Lango region. Cheering crowds were reported in the streets of Kampala after the radio broadcast.[17] Amin announced that he was a soldier, not a politician, and that the military government would remain only as a caretaker regime until new elections, which would be announced as soon as the situation was normalised. He promised to release all political prisoners.[18]

Amin was initially welcomed both within Uganda[citation needed] and by the international community[citation needed]. He gave former king and president Mutesa (who had died in exile) a state burial in April 1971, freed many political prisoners, and reiterated his promise to hold free and fair elections to return the country to democratic rule in the shortest period possible.[19]

Presidency

Main article: Uganda under Idi Amin

Gaddafi and the Soviet Union

Libyan military dictator Muammar al-Gaddafi backed Amin[20] and the Soviet Union became Amin's largest arms supplier.[21]

East Germany was involved in the General Service Unit and the State Research Bureau, the two agencies which were most notorious for terror. During the Tanzanian invasion in 1979 East Germany attempted to remove evidence about its involvement.[22]

Establishment of military rule

On 2 February 1971, one week after the coup, Amin declared himself President of Uganda, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Army Chief of Staff and Chief of Air Staff. He announced that he was suspending certain provisions of the constitution and soon instituted an Advisory Defence Council composed of military officers, with himself as the chairman. Amin placed military tribunals above the system of civil law, appointed soldiers to top government posts and parastatal agencies, and informed the newly inducted civilian cabinet ministers that they would be subject to military discipline.[16][23] Amin renamed the presidential lodge in Kampala from Government House to "The Command Post". He disbanded the General Service Unit (GSU), an intelligence agency created by the previous government, and replaced it with the State Research Bureau (SRB). SRB headquarters at the Kampala suburb of Nakasero became the scene of torture and executions over the next few years.[24] Other agencies used to root out political dissent included the military police and the Public Safety Unit (PSU).[24]

Obote took refuge in Tanzania, having been offered sanctuary there by Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere. He was soon joined by 20,000 Ugandan refugees fleeing Amin. In 1972, the exiles attempted to regain the country through a poorly organized coup attempt, without success.[25]

Persecution of ethnic and other groups

Amin retaliated against the attempted invasion by Ugandan exiles in 1972 by purging the army of Obote supporters, predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups.[26] In July 1971, Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara Barracks,[27] and by early 1972, some 5,000 Acholi and Lango soldiers, and at least twice as many civilians, had disappeared.[28] The victims soon came to include members of other ethnic groups, religious leaders, journalists, senior bureaucrats, judges, lawyers, students and intellectuals, criminal suspects, and foreign nationals. In this atmosphere of violence, many other people were killed for criminal motives or simply at will.[29] Bodies floated on the River Nile in quantities sufficient to clog the Owen Falls Hydro-Electric Dam in Jinja on at least one occasion.[30]

The killings, motivated by ethnic, political and financial factors, continued throughout Amin's eight-year reign.[28] The exact number of people killed is unknown. The International Commission of Jurists estimated the death toll at no less than 80,000 and more likely around 300,000. An estimate compiled by exile organizations with the help of Amnesty International puts the number killed at 500,000.[1] Among the most prominent people killed were Benedicto Kiwanuka, the former prime minister and later chief justice; Janani Luwum, the Anglican archbishop; Joseph Mubiru, the former governor of the Central Bank; Frank Kalimuzo, the vice chancellor of Makerere University; Byron Kawadwa, a prominent playwright; and two of Amin's own cabinet ministers, Erinayo Wilson Oryema and Charles Oboth Ofumbi.[31]

In August 1972, Idi Amin declared what he called an "economic war", a set of policies that included the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans. Uganda's 80,000 Asians were mostly from the Indian subcontinent and born in the country, their ancestors having come to Uganda when the country was still a British colony. Many owned businesses, including large-scale enterprises, that formed the backbone of the Ugandan economy. On 4 August 1972, Amin issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the 60,000 Asians who were not Ugandan citizens (most of them held British passports). This was later amended to include all 80,000 Asians, with the exception of professionals, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers. A plurality of the Asians with British passports, around 30,000, emigrated to Britain. Others went to Australia, Canada, India, Pakistan, Sweden, and the U.S.[32][33][34] Amin expropriated businesses and properties belonging to the Asians and handed them over to his supporters. The businesses were mismanaged, and industries collapsed from lack of maintenance. This proved disastrous for the already declining economy.[23]

In 1977, Henry Kyemba, Amin's health minister and a former official of the first Obote regime, defected and resettled in Britain. Kyemba wrote and published A State of Blood, the first insider exposé of Amin's rule.

International relations

Further information: [[:Foreign relations of Uganda]]

Following the expulsion of Ugandan Asians in 1972, most of whom were of Indian descent, India severed diplomatic relations with Uganda. The same year, as part of his "economic war", Amin broke diplomatic ties with Britain and nationalized 85 British-owned businesses.

That same year, relations with Israel soured. Although Israel had previously supplied Uganda with arms, in 1972 Amin expelled Israeli military advisers and turned to Muammar al-Gaddafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support.[26] Amin was an outspoken critic of Israel.[35] In the documentary film General Idi Amin Dada: A Self Portrait, he discussed his plans for war against Israel, using paratroops, bombers, and suicide squadrons.[8]

In 1973, U.S. Ambassador Thomas Patrick Melady recommended that the United States reduce its presence in Uganda. Melady described Amin's regime as "racist, erratic and unpredictable, brutal, inept, bellicose, irrational, ridiculous, and militaristic".[36] Accordingly, the United States closed its embassy in Kampala.

Amin said that Hitler "was right to burn six million Jews".[37]

In June 1976, Idi Amin allowed an Air France aeroplane hijacked by two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - External Operations (PFLP-EO) and two members of the German Revolutionäre Zellen to land at Entebbe Airport. There, the hijackers were joined by three more. Soon after, 156 hostages who did not hold Israeli passports were released and flown to safety, while 83 Jews and Israeli citizens, as well as 20 others who refused to abandon them, continued to be held hostage. In the subsequent Israeli rescue operation, codenamed Operation Thunderbolt (popularly known as Operation Entebbe), nearly all of the hostages were freed. Three hostages died and 10 were wounded; six hijackers, 45 Ugandan soldiers, and one Israeli soldier, Yoni Netanyahu, were killed. This incident further soured Uganda's international relations, leading Britain to close its High Commission in Uganda.[38]

Uganda under Amin embarked on a large military build-up, which raised concerns in Kenya. Early in June 1975, Kenyan officials impounded a large convoy of Soviet-made arms en route to Uganda at the port of Mombasa. Tension between Uganda and Kenya reached its climax in February 1976 when Amin announced that he would investigate the possibility that parts of southern Sudan and western and central Kenya, up to within 32 kilometres (20 mi) of Nairobi, were historically a part of colonial Uganda. The Kenyan Government responded with a stern statement that Kenya would not part with "a single inch of territory". Amin backed down after the Kenyan army deployed troops and armored personnel carriers along the Kenya-Uganda border.[39]

Erratic behaviour and media portrayal

Caricature of Idi Amin in military and presidential attire by Edmund S. Valtman.

Over time, Amin became more erratic and outspoken. In 1977, after Britain had broken diplomatic relations with his regime, Amin declared he had beaten the British, and conferred on himself the decoration of CBE (Conqueror of the British Empire). Radio Uganda then read out the whole of his new title: "His Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor[B] Idi Amin Dada, VC,[C] DSO, MC, CBE."[1] In 1971, Amin and Zaire's president Mobutu Sese Seko changed the names of Lake Albert and Lake Edward to Lake Mobutu Sese Seko and Lake Idi Amin Dada, respectively.[40]

Amin became the subject of rumours and myths, including a widespread belief that he was a cannibal.[41][42] Some of the unsubstantiated rumours, such as the mutilation of one of his wives, were spread and popularised by the 1980 film Rise and Fall of Idi Amin and alluded to in the film The Last King of Scotland in 2006.[43]

During Amin's reign, popular media outside of Uganda often portrayed him as an essentially comic figure. In a 1977 assessment typical of the time, a Time magazine article described him as a "killer and clown, big-hearted buffoon and strutting martinet".[44] For focusing on Amin's excessive tastes and self-aggrandizing eccentricities, the foreign media was often criticized for downplaying or excusing his murderous behavior.[45] Other commentators even suggested that Amin had deliberately cultivated his reputation in the foreign media as an easily-parodied buffoon in order to defuse international concern over his administration of Uganda.[46]

Deposition and exile

Further information: [[:Uganda-Tanzania War]]

By 1978, the number of Amin's close associates had shrunk significantly, and he faced increasing dissent from within Uganda. After the killings of Luwum and ministers Oryema and Oboth Ofumbi in 1977, several of Amin's ministers defected or fled to exile.[47] Later that year, after Amin's vice president, General Mustafa Adrisi, was injured in a car accident, troops loyal to him mutinied. Amin sent troops against the mutineers, some of whom had fled across the Tanzanian border.[23] Amin accused Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere of waging war against Uganda, ordered the invasion of Tanzanian territory, and formally annexed a section of the Kagera Region across the boundary.[23][25]

Nyerere mobilized the Tanzania People's Defence Force and counterattacked, joined by several groups of Ugandan exiles who had united as the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA). Amin's army retreated steadily, and despite military help from Libya's Muammar al-Gaddafi, he was forced to flee on 11 April 1979 when Kampala was captured. He escaped first to Libya and ultimately settled in Saudi Arabia where the Saudi royal family paid him a generous wage in return for his staying out of politics.[7] Having covered the war for the BBC as chief Africa correspondent, in 1980 Brian Barron, in partnership with cameraman Mohammed Amin of Visnews in Nairobi, located Amin and secured the first interview with him since his deposition.[48]

Amin held that Uganda needed him and never expressed remorse for the nature of his regime.[49] In 1989, he attempted to return to Uganda, apparently to lead an armed group organised by Colonel Juma Oris. He reached Kinshasa, Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), before Zairian President Mobutu forced him to return to Saudi Arabia.

Amin's death

On 20 July 2003, one of Amin's wives, Madina, reported that he was in a coma and near death at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. She pleaded with Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni to allow him to return to die in Uganda. Museveni replied that Amin would have to "answer for his sins the moment he was brought back."[50] Amin died in Saudi Arabia on 16 August 2003. He was buried in Ruwais Cemetery in Jeddah; according to the Associated Press's sources, few attended the funeral ceremony.[51]

Family and associates

A polygamist, Idi Amin married at least six women, three of whom he divorced. He married his first and second wives, Malyamu and Kay, in 1966. The next year, he married Nora and then Nalongo Madina in 1972. On 26 March 1974, he announced on Radio Uganda that he had divorced Malyamu, Nora and Kay.[52][53] Malyamu was arrested in Tororo on the Kenyan border in April 1974 and accused of attempting to smuggle a bolt of fabric into Kenya. She later moved to London.[52][54] Kay died on 13 August 1974, reportedly from an attempted surgical abortion performed by her lover Dr. Mbalu Mukasa (who himself committed suicide). Her body was found dismembered. In August 1975, during the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit meeting in Kampala, Amin married Sarah Kyolaba. Sarah's boyfriend, whom she was living with before she met Amin, vanished and was never heard from again. According to The Monitor, Amin married again a few months before his death in 2003.[54]

Sources differ widely on the number of children Amin fathered; most say that he had 30 to 45.[D] Until 2003, Taban Amin, Idi Amin's eldest son, was the leader of West Nile Bank Front (WNBF), a rebel group opposed to the government of Yoweri Museveni. In 2005, he was offered amnesty by Museveni, and in 2006, he was appointed Deputy Director General of the Internal Security Organisation.[55] Another of Amin’s sons, Haji Ali Amin, ran for election as Chairman (i.e. mayor) of Njeru Town Council in 2002 but was not elected.[56] In early 2007, the award-winning film The Last King of Scotland prompted one of his sons, Jaffar Amin, to speak out in his father's defense. Jaffar Amin said he was writing a book to rehabilitate his father's reputation.[57]

On 3 August 2007, Faisal Wangita, one of Amin's sons, was convicted for playing a role in a murder in London.[58]

Among Amin's closest associates was the British-born Bob Astles, who is considered by many to have been a malign influence, and by others as a moderating presence.[59] Isaac Malyamungu was an instrumental affiliate and one of the more feared officers in Amin's army.[47]

Portrayal in media and literature

Film dramatisations

Documentaries

Books

Notes

  • A ^ Many sources, like Encyclopædia Britannica, Encarta and the Columbia Encyclopedia, hold that Amin was born in Koboko or Kampala circa 1925, and that the exact date of his birth is unknown. Researcher Fred Guweddeko claimed that Amin was born on 17 May 1928,[6] but that is disputed.[60] The only certainty is that Amin was born some time during the mid-1920s.
  • B ^ He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University.[4]
  • C ^ The Victorious Cross (VC) was a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross.[61]
  • D ^ According to Henry Kyema and the African Studies Review[62], Idi Amin had 34 children. Some sources say Amin claimed to have fathered 32 children. A report in The Monitor says he was survived by 45 left children,[54] while another in the BBC gives the figure of 54.[63]

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Obituary: Idi Amin". The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-03-18.
  2. ^ http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/a/bio_amin.htm
  3. ^ Ullman, Richard H. (April 1978). "Human Rights and Economic Power: The United States Versus Idi Amin". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2009-03-26. The most conservative estimates by informed observers hold that President Idi Amin Dada and the terror squads operating under his loose direction have killed 100,000 Ugandans in the seven years he has held power.
  4. ^ a b "Idi Amin: a byword for brutality". News24. 2003-07-21. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
  5. ^ Gershowitz, Suzanne (20 February 2007). "The Last King of Scotland, Idi Amin, and the United Nations". Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  6. ^ a b c d Guweddeko, Fred (12 June 2007). "Rejected then taken in by dad; a timeline". The Monitor. Archived from the original on 2007-06-12. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  7. ^ a b "Idi Amin". Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 December 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-08-09. Retrieved 2009-08-08. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2007-03-14 suggested (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  8. ^ a b General Idi Amin Dada: A Self Portrait. Le Figaro Films. ISBN 0-78002-507-5. {{cite AV media}}: Unknown parameter |year2= ignored (help)
  9. ^ Bay, Austin (20 August 2003). "Why Didn't Amin Rot and Die in Jail?". Strategy Page. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  10. ^ Bridgland, Fred (16 August 2003). "Idi Amin". Scotsman. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  11. ^ a b c Cain, Nick & Growden, Greg "Chapter 21: Ten Peculiar Facts about Rugby" in Rugby Union for Dummies (2nd Edition), p294 (pub: John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, England) ISBN 978-0-470-03537-5
  12. ^ Johnston, Ian (17 August 2003). "Death of a despot, buffoon and killer". Scotsman. Retrieved 2009-08-24.
  13. ^ "Country Studies: Uganda: Independence: The Early Years". Federal Research Division. United States Library of Congress. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  14. ^ "Idi Amin Dada Biography". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale. 2005.
  15. ^ Nantulya, Paul (2001). "Exclusion, Identity and Armed Conflict: A Historical Survey of the Politics of Confrontation in Uganda with Specific Reference to the Independence Era" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-04.
  16. ^ a b "General Idi Amin overthrows Ugandan government". British Council. 2 February 1971. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  17. ^ "On this day: 25 January 1971: Idi Amin ousts Ugandan president". BBC. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  18. ^ Fairhall, John (26 January 1971). "Curfew in Uganda after military coup topples Obote". The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  19. ^ Mbabaali, Jude (August 2005). "The Role of Opposition Parties in a Democracy: The Experience of the Democratic Party of Uganda" (PDF). Regional Conference on Political Parties and Democratisation in East Africa. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  20. ^ Roland Anthony Oliver, Anthony Atmore. Africa since 1800. p. 272.
  21. ^ Dale C. Tatum. Who influenced whom?. p. 177.
  22. ^ Gareth M. Winrow: The foreign policy of the GDR in Africa, p. 141
  23. ^ a b c d "Country Studies: Uganda: Military Rule Under Amin". Federal Research Division. United States Library of Congress. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  24. ^ a b "Country Studies: Uganda: Post-Independence Security Services". Federal Research Division. United States Library of Congress. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  25. ^ a b "An Idi-otic Invasion". Time. 13 November 1978. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  26. ^ a b Tall, Mamadou (1982). "Notes on the Civil and Political Strife in Uganda". A Journal of Opinion. 12 (1/2): 41–44. Retrieved 2009-08-09. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Lautze, Sue. "Research on Violent Institutions in Unstable Environments: The livelihoods systems of Ugandan army soldiers and their families in a war zone" (PDF). Hertford College, Oxford University. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  28. ^ a b "Obituary: Idi Amin". Daily Telegraph. 17 September 2003. Archived from the original on 2009-08-09. {{cite news}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2007-10-12 suggested (help)
  29. ^ "Disappearances and Political Killings: Human Rights Crisis of the 1990s: A Manual for Action" (PDF). Amnesty International. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-08-09. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2008-03-09 suggested (help)
  30. ^ "Idi Amin: 'Butcher of Uganda'". CNN. 16 August 2003. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  31. ^ "Special report: Who were Amin's victims?". The Daily Monitor. 13 June 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-06-13.
  32. ^ Luganda, Patrick (29 July 2003). "Amin's Economic War Left Uganda on Crutches". New Vision. Kampala.
  33. ^ "On this day: 7 August 1972: Asians given 90 days to leave Uganda". BBC. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  34. ^ "Flight of the Asians". Time. 11 September 1972. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  35. ^ Jamison, M. Idi Amin and Uganda: An Annotated Bibliography, Greenwood Press, 1992, p.155-6
  36. ^ "240. Telegram 1 From the Embassy in Uganda to the Department of State, January 2, 1973, 0700Z". Foreign relations. E-6. Office of the Historian. 2 January 1973. Retrieved 2009-08-08. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |work= and |journal= specified (help)
  37. ^ End for Amin the executioner The Sun-Herald August 17, 2003
  38. ^ "On this day: 7 July 1976: British grandmother missing in Uganda". BBC. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  39. ^ "'Dada' always rubbed Kenya the wrong way". Sunday Nation. 17 August 2003. Archived from the original on 2008-02-06.
  40. ^ "Purges and Peace Talks". Time. 16 October 1972. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  41. ^ Orizio, Riccardo (21 August 2003). "Idi Amin's Exile Dream". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  42. ^ "Museveni, munificent with monarch". The Economist. 29 November 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
  43. ^ Serugo, Moses (28 May 2007). "Special Report: The myths surrounding Idi Amin". The Monitor. Archived from the original on 2007-05-28.
  44. ^ "Amin:The Wild Man of Africa". Time. 28 February 1977. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  45. ^ Kibazo, Joel (13 January 2007). "A Brute, Not a Buffoon". The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-08-08. ... Amin was widely portrayed as a comic figure. Yes, he had expelled the Asians and murdered a few people, but isn't that what was expected of Africa, I used to hear.
  46. ^ "Obituary: Idi Amin". Daily Telegraph. 17 September 2003. Archived from the original on 2009-08-09. Throughout his disastrous reign, he encouraged the West to cultivate a dangerous ambivalence towards him. His genial grin, penchant for grandiose self-publicity and ludicrous public statements on international affairs led to his adoption as a comic figure. He was easily parodied ... however, this fascination, verging on affection, for the grotesqueness of the individual occluded the singular plight of his nation. {{cite news}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2007-10-12 suggested (help)
  47. ^ a b "Not even an archbishop was spared". The Weekly Observer. 16 February 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12.
  48. ^ Barron, Brian (2003-08-16). "The Idi Amin I knew". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
  49. ^ Wasswa, Henry (17 August 2003). "Amin's death brings muted reaction". Associated Press. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  50. ^ "Idi Amin back in media spotlight". BBC. 25 July 2003. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  51. ^ "Idi Amin, ex-dictator of Uganda, dies". USA Today. 16 August 2003. Retrieved 2009-08-08. Amin was buried in Jiddah's Ruwais cemetery after sunset prayers Saturday, said a person close to the family in the Red Sea port city. The source, who spoke on condition of anonymity, was told that few people attended the funeral.
  52. ^ a b "Reign of Terror: The life and loves of a tyrant". Daily Nation. 20 August 2003. Archived from the original on 2008-02-06. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  53. ^ Kavuma, Richard (18 June 2007). "Special Report: Big Daddy and his women". The Monitor. Archived from the original on 2007-06-18. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  54. ^ a b c Kibirige, David (17 August 2003). "Idi Amin is dead". The Monitor. Archived from the original on 2007-06-10. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  55. ^ Mcconnell, Tristan (12 February 2006). "Return of Idi Amin's son casts a shadow over Ugandan election". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  56. ^ "Amin's son runs for mayor". BBC. 3 January 2002. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  57. ^ "Idi Amin's son lashes out over 'Last King'". Associated Press. USA Today. 22 February 2007. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  58. ^ "Idi Amin's son jailed over death". BBC News. 3 August 2007. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  59. ^ Kelly, Jane (19 August 2003). "Uganda's white rat". Daily News. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  60. ^ Keatley, Patrick (18 August 2003). "Idi Amin: Obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  61. ^ Lloyd, Lorna (2007) p.239
  62. ^ African Studies Review (1982) p.63
  63. ^ "Amins row over inheritance". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-08-09.

References

  • African studies review. Vol. 25–26. University of California. 1982.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Avirgan, Tony (1982). War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin. Westport: Lawrence Hill & Co. Publishers. ISBN 0882081365. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Decalo, Samuel (1989). Psychoses of Power: African Personal Dictatorships. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0813376173. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Gwyn, David (1977). Idi Amin: Death-Light of Africa. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0316332305. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Kyemba, Henry (1977). A State of Blood: The Inside Story of Idi Amin. New York: Ace Books. ISBN 0441785244. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Lloyd, Lorna (2007). Diplomacy with a difference: the Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880-2006. University of Michigan: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9004154973.
  • Melady, Thomas P. (1977). Idi Amin Dada: Hitler in Africa. Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel. ISBN 0836207831. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Orizio, Riccardo (2004). Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators. Walker & Company. ISBN 0436209993.
  • Palmowski, Jan (2003). Dictionary of Contemporary World History: From 1900 to the present day (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860539-0.
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Political offices
Preceded by President of Uganda
1971–1979 		Succeeded by

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