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Kamma (caste)

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Template:Caste Groups of India (Kamma)

Kamma
ClassificationWarriors, Landlords, Peasants
ReligionsHinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism
LanguagesTelugu
Populated statesAndhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.
SubdivisionsSix

Kamma (Template:Lang-te) or the Kammavaru are a social group found largely in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. The Kamma population was 795,732 in the year 1881.[1] According to 1921 census they constituted about 4.8% of Andhra Pradesh population and in significant numbers in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka[2][3][4] In the last decades of the previous century, a sizable number emigrated to other parts of the world, particularly to the USA, UK and Australia.

Ancient history

Origin

There are many theories about the origins of the word "Kamma" and the social group known as the Kammas but none is conclusive.

Buddhist origin

The theory is that the people who lived in the Krishna river valley, where Buddhism prevailed, got the name from the Theravada Buddhist concept of Kamma (in Pali) or Karma (in Sanskrit).[5] This region was once known as Kammarashtram / Kammarattam / Kammanadu, which was under the control of the Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas and Cholas.[6][7][8] Inscriptions mentioning Kammanadu are available since 3rd century C.E.[9][10][11][12][13][14] According to some historians the Kammas existed since the time of the Christ.[15]

Kambhoja/Pallava origin

Some historians opined that the name Kamma is probably derived from Kambhoja. Avadh Bihari Lal Avasthi comments as follows: We find Kambhi, Kamma, Kumbhi etc castes in South India. Possibly, there has also been a Kamboja country in Southern India[16]. The Garuda Purana locates a Kambhoja principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narrashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in the southern part of India.

pulinda ashmaka jimuta narrashtara nivasinah

carnata kamboja ghata dakshinapathvasinah.[17]

Kurmi origin

Another origin of Kammas is speculated as: Buddhist Kurmis from the Gangetic plains migrated to the Krishna river delta in large numbers to escape the persecution of Pushyamitra Sunga (184 BCE).[18] Buddhism was already flourishing in Dharanikota, Bhattiprolu, Chandavolu etc in this fertile area.[19] Historians surmised that the Sanskrit word Kurmi/Kurma became Kamma in later years.[20] The first records of the word Kammarashtram appeared in the Jaggayyapeta inscription of the Ikshvaku King Madhariputra Purushadatta (3rd century CE).[21] Kammarashtram extended from the Krishna River to Kandukur (Prakasam Dt.). The next record was that of Pallava King Kumara Vishnu II followed by that of Eastern Chalukya king Mangi Yuvaraja (627-696 CE). The subsequent inscriptions of Telugu Cholas/Chodas and Kakatiya dynasty mentioned ‘Kammanadu’.[22] This region is also known as Pallavanadu/Palanadu/Palnadu due to Pallava rule.

Ancestry

The kings and military persona of Kammanadu started using the title Nayaka/Nayakudu from 10th century onwards as observed in many inscriptions.[23] There are about 1200 Kamma surnames (Intiperu) which are discernible from this time. The surnames and Gothras of Kammas and Velamas were catalogued by Badabanala Bhatta in 1068 CE.[24] The names of the ancestral villages were adopted as Gothras. This shows that the ancestors of Kammas and Velamas were either Buddhists or Jains who did not follow Gothra system and that both the social groups had a common history. The historical reasons for the dichotomy of the two groups are not known, although many stories abound.[25] The inscriptions of many Kamma Nayaks mentioned that they belong to Durjaya clan (Vamsa).[26] For instance, the inscription (1125 CE) of Pinnama Nayudu in the temple of Sagareswara in Madala village mentioned that he belonged to Durjaya clan and Vallutla Gothra.[27] Another inscription (1282 CE) in the same temple mentioned that Devineni Erra Nayudu, Kommi Nayudu and Pothi Nayudu belonged to the lineage of Buddhavarma, Durjaya clan and Vallutla Gothra.[28][29] The inscription at Ravuru mentioned that the bodyguards of Queen Rudrama Devi, Ekki Nayudu, Rudra Nayudu, Pinarudra Nayudu and Pothi Nayudu belong to Durjaya vamsa and Vallutla Gothra.[30][31]. It is worth mentioning here that many of the martial clans of Kammas belong to Vallutla Gothra.[32] Many of the Telugu Chodas of Kammanadu had relations with Eastern Chalukyas and later with Kakatiyas. According to many inscriptions and “Velugotivari Vamsavali” Kammas with surnames such as Vanama, Yalampati, Sammeta, Maccha, Madhyanapu, Choda, Vasireddy, Katta, Adapa etc., belong to Choda-Chalukya ancestry.[5][33] The Vasireddy Clan had a title “Chalukya Narayana”.[34] Historians surmised that by the end of 10th century Durjayas, Chodas, few sections of Chalukyas and Haihayas of Kammanadu merged into Kammas.[35][36]

Medieval history

Identity

The division of warrior class into many castes and their consolidation commenced during the time of Kakatiya king Rudra I (1158-1195 CE). According to Velugotivari Vamsavali and Padmanayakacharitra, texts written in medieval times, farmers (Kapus) became Kammas and Velamas[37][38]. In medieval times the term 'Kapu' meant a farmer or protector.

"...kaalachoditamuna kaakateevarugolchi kaapulella velama kammalairi"

(Telugu: "....కాలచోదితమున కాకతీవరుగొల్చి కాపులెల్ల వెలమ, కమ్మలైరి")

Badabanala Bhatta prescribed Surnames and Gothras of Kammas and Velamas. The affiliation of Kammas as a caste to the ruling dynasties could not be ascribed till 11th century. Traces of evidence were found in the inscriptions of Telugu Cholas/Chodas of Velanadu starting from Gonka I (1075-1115 CE), found in many places in Kammanadu. The Dharanikota kings (1130-1251 CE) who belonged to Kota clan of Kammas and Durjaya ancestry had marital alliances with Telugu Cholas[39][40]. However, there was some controversy regarding the origin of Kota kings[41]. Kota kings married the women from Kakatiya dynasty (E.g., Kota Betharaja married Ganapamba, daughter of Ganapati Deva). The Kakatiya Ganapati Deva married the sisters of Jayapa Senani, a warrior hailing from Diviseema.[42] Jayapa Nayudu is also well known for his contributions to the field of Indian dance (1231 CE)[43] and was the head of the elephant corps in the Kakatiya army. Around this time many warriors from Kammanadu joined the forces of the Kakatiya dynasty. In Warangal region Kammas are called Kamma Kapus.[44]

Famous Telugu poet Srinatha (14th century CE), while describing the social divisions during his time, categorized Padmanayaka, Velama and Kamma in his Bhimeswara Puranamu.[45].

".....andu padmanayakulana, velamalana, kammalana trimarga gangapravahambulumbole gotrambulanniyeni jagatpavitrambulai pravahimpachunda" -

(Template:Lang-te)

Kakatiya period

Kammas grew to prominence during the Kakatiya dynasty's reign (1083-1323 CE) by also holding important positions in their army. One of the most famous commanders during the time of Rudrama Devi and Prataparudra II was Dadi Nagadeva who played a prominent role in warding off the attack of the Yadava king of Devagiri[46]. Nagadeva’s son Ganna Mantri, also called Ganna Senani or Yugandhar, was a great warrior and a patron of arts and literature. Ganna was the commander of Warangal fort. He was captured, converted to Islam and taken to Delhi along with Prataparudra.[47] Subsequently, he rose to the exalted position of 'Wazir' in Delhi durbar and was sent to rule Punjab.[48][49] Poet Maarana dedicated his Markandeya Puranam to Ganna (Malik Maqbul).[50] Nagadeva’s other sons Ellaya Nayaka and Mechaya Nayaka were also valiant fighters. Another warrior of repute was Muppidi Nayaka who went on an expedition to Kanchi, defeated the Pandya king and merged it with Kakatiya dynasty in 1316 CE. In prolonged battles with Muslims between 1296 and 1323 CE. thousands of Kamma Nayakas perished along with others, in the defense of Warangal. The inhuman atrocities perpetrated by the Muslims on Telugu people later prompted two Kamma chieftains, Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka and Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka, who served the Kakatiya king Prataparudra, to raise the banner of revolt.[51][52] After the fall of Warangal they united the Nayaka chieftains, wrested Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate and ruled for 50 years.[53] (Musunuri Nayaks)

Vijayanagara period

Subsequent to the martyrdom of Kaapaaneedu (Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka) many Kammas migrated to the Vijayanagara kingdom. During the reign of Sri Krishnadevaraya Kammas belonging to thirty seven Gothras were living in the city of Vijayanagar.[54] Kamma Nayaks formed the bulwark of Vijayanagara army and were appointed as governors in many areas of Tamil Nadu.[55] Their role in protecting the last great Hindu kingdom of India was significant.[56] Some of the prominent commanders who achieved fame were:

  • Kammas controlled large swathes of southern and northern Tamil Nadu for several years under the title of Nayacker or Naicker or Naidu, which was a legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire. The Zamindaris of Ilaiyarasanadal and Kurivikulam in Tamil Nadu belong to Pemmasani families[64]

Martial clans: Many clans belonging to Kamma social group figure prominently in the battles during Vijayanagara era and in the subsequent years. Some of these clans include Pemmasani, Matcha, Vasireddy, Kodali, Sammeta, Choda/Chode, Dasari, Alamandala, Adapa, Suryadevara, Nadendla, Sakhamuri etc.[5] The most prominent Kamma commanders in Krishnadevaraya’s army belonged to Suryadevara, Vasireddy, Pemmasani, Ravella and Sayapaneni clans.

Golkonda period

Vijayanagara kingdom underwent very difficult times after the battle of Tallikota in 1565. Pemmasani Nayaks, Ravella Nayaks and Sayapaneni Nayaks steadfastly helped the Araviti kings in keeping the Muslims at bay. It took another 90 years to consolidate the Muslim power in Andhra country with the capture of Gandikota in 1652. Kamma nayaks migrated in large numbers to the Tamil region. During the Golkonda period, the Sayapaneni Nayaks (1626-1802) ruled Dupadu region as vassals of the Golkonda sultans.[65][66] Gangappa Nayudu, Venkatadri Nayudu and Rangappa Nayudu were famous among them. Ibrahim Qutb Shah captured Kondavidu in 1579. Rayarao, his Maratha commander, appointed Deshmukhs and Chowdarys in 497 villages. The usage of the title ‘Chowdary’ in coastal Andhra Pradesh commenced at this time.

Vasireddy Sadasiva Nayudu ruled Nandigama paragana from 1550 to 1581.[67] He was granted the paragana by Ibrahim Qutb Shah of Golkonda. According to Mackenzie, Virappa Nayudu was appointed as Deshmukh of Nandigama paragana in 1670. Chinapadmanabha Nayudu got a grant of 500 villages from Abul Hassan Tanisha in 1685.[68] He built a fort at Chintapalli and ruled it until 1710 CE. His successors ruled until 1760. During this period the French and the British were trying to gain control of the Andhra country. Jaggayya ruled Chintapalli from 1763 onwards. He was killed by French troops sent by Basalat Jung, brother of the Golkonda Nawab in 1771. Jaggayya’s wife Acchamma committed Sati. Jaggayya’s son Venkatadri recovered Chintapalii in 1777 and earned fame as a benevolent and illustrious ruler.[69] (Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu and Vasireddy Clan). The British gained control of Andhra by 1788 from Golkonda Nawabs. Another Kamma principality during Golkonda period was Devarakota with Challapalli as its capital. Its ruler, Yarlagadda Guruvarayudu was subdued by Abdullah Qutb Shah in 1576. His successors ruled as vassals of Golkonda till the French took over in 1751 and later the British in 1765.

British period

By the end of 18th century the British East India Company had consolidated their rule in Andhra. The armies of Zamindars and Deshmukhs were dismantled and only the power of tax collection was left intact. The well-known Kamma Zamindaris under the British rule were Muktyala, Chintapalli (Amaravati), Challapalli, Devarakota, Kapileswarapuram etc. These Zamindars encouraged modern education by establishing many schools and libraries.

Modern history

After the decline of major kingdoms, Kammas controlled large fertile areas in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, as a legacy of their martial past. The British recognized their prominence and made them village heads(Talari) also known as Chowdary to collect taxes. The association of Kammas with the land and agriculture is legendary. The martial prowess of Kammas was put to good use to tame the lands in modern times. There are many proverbs in Telugu language which speak of the Kammas’ adeptness in agriculture and their emotional attachment to the soil.

For example: Kammavani Chetulu Kattinaa Nilavadu (Template:Lang-te) (Though you tie Kamma's hands he will not be quiet) and Kammavaariki Bhumi Bhayapaduthundi (Template:Lang-te) (The earth fears Kammas)[70].

English historians like Edgar Thurston and noted agricultural scientists like M. S. Randhawa eulogized the spirit of Kamma farmers.[71][72].

Construction of dams and barrages and establishment of an irrigation system in Godavari and Krishna river deltas by Sir Arthur Cotton was a great boon to the Kamma farmers. Availability of water and the natural propensity for hard work made the Kammas wealthy and prosperous.[73] The money was put to good use by establishing numerous schools and libraries and encouraging their children to take up modern education. Among all communities, Kammas were one of the first to take to education in large numbers.[74] Over a period of 10 years, in Guntur District alone, 130 High schools and hostels were established by their initiative. The zamindars of Challapalli and Kapileswarapuram founded many schools and libraries. In the modern times, the pace of the growth in wealth accelerated due to their enterprise and notable achievements in business, real estate, farming, arts and movie industry, education, medicine, engineering, media and high technology.[75]

The Kammas of Tamil Nadu who are the descendants of migrant commanders of Vijayanagara empire have also excelled in the cultivation of black cotton soils and later diversified into various industrial enterprises, particularly in Coimbatore.[76][77][78][79][80]

In the recent past, enterprising farmers migrated to other regions such as Nizamabad, Raichur and Bellary (Karnataka), Raipur (Chattisgarh) and Sambalpur (Orissa). In the past fifty years, the enterprise of the Kammas has profoundly influenced every aspect of social, economic and political life of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and the country in general. The contribution of Kammas to the economy of the state of Andhra Pradesh is significant.

With the power of knowledge and education, a large number of Kammas have migrated to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand etc. This migration is continuing in line with the many socio-cultural changes being experienced by the state of Andhra Pradesh.

Distribution

In the state of Andhra Pradesh, Kammas are predominantly found in Guntur and Krishna district, followed by Prakasam and Khammam Districts. Significant numbers are also found in the districts of West Godavari, Chittoor, Nizamabad, Hyderabad (India), Rangareddy, Anantapur, East Godavari and Nellore; Bellary and Bangalore districts of Karnataka; and Chennai, Madurai, Coimbatore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Kovilpatti, Virudhunagar, Theni, Dindigul, North Arcot and South Arcot districts of Tamil Nadu.

Zamindaris

Some of the prominent Kamma Zamindaris in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are:

  • Challapalli - Yarlagadda Clan
  • Chintapalli/Amaravati - Vasireddy clan
  • Kapileswarapuram - Sri Balusu clan
  • Muktyala - Vasireddy clan
  • Melkalathuru (Old Arcot Dt) - Bollineni/Bollini Clan
  • Kurivikulam (Tirunelveli Dt) – Pemmasani clan
  • Ilayarasanendal (Tirunelveli Dt) – Ravella clan
  • Neikarapatti (Dindugal Dt) – Pemmasani clan

Surnames

Several Kamma surnames that end with 'neni' denote the descent from an ancestor having the title 'Nayakudu/Nayudu/Nayuni'. For example, the surname 'Veeramachaneni' originated from 'Veeramacha Naidu'. Other surnames indicate the villages to which the persons originally belonged to. Kammas use different titles in different regions such as Chowdary, Naidu, Rao and Naicker. In Tamil Nadu and Southern Andhra Pradesh, Naidu is commonly used. Naicker title is used in the areas south of Coimbatore districts. However, Telugu speaking Kapu, Velama and other communities also use the titles Naidu and Naicker in Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, respectively.

Sub-Divisions

According to the census of British India (1891) there were six divisions viz., Peda Kamma, Godachatu Kamma and Illuvellani Kamma (Krishna, Guntur, Anantapur districts); Bangaru Kamma (North Arcot); Vaduga Kamma (Coimbatore) and Kavali Kamma (Godavari districts)[81]. In addition, divisions such as Gandikota Kamma, Gampa Kamma and Macha Kamma also exist. In modern times these divisions have all but vanished.

Politics

Kammas are politically active, in all the regions of Andhra Pradesh and parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. During the twentieth century a number of leaders like Prof N.G. Ranga, Paturi Rajagopala Naidu,Kotha Raghuramaiah, Gottipati Brahmaiah, Moturu Hanumantha Rao and Kalluri Chandramouli played prominent roles in the national freedom movement. Several Kammas were also attracted to leftist ideals and joined the Communist Party. It was a strong political force in the state until the mid sixties. Many wealthy Kammas willingly relinquished their lands and actively worked for the land distribution reforms. This helped many landless individuals attain middle class status and brought about greater economic development of the state as a whole rather than to just one particular community. We are witnessing the benefits of this sacrifice now in the state as Andhra Pradesh has developed into an economic hub. However, their affinity towards the Communist party in the early days led them to lose political clout along with the diminished influence of the Communist party throughout the world.

During the 1980s, they again played a key role in state and national politics with the inception of the Telugu Desam Party by its then President Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao also called as NTR[82]. Nara Chandrababu Naidu gave a progressive direction to Andhra Pradesh and won global recognition to the state[83].

Crossroads

The Kammas are at crossroads, today. A large number of families has already transplanted themselves to urban centres in India and abroad. Their enterprising nature and hard work created a class of ‘neo-rich’. In villages, land reforms forced many Kammas to give away their lands to the government. Subsequently, land holdings got fragmented and presently most of the Kammas living in rural areas are small farmers. The vagaries of weather and a lack of good "support prices" made agriculture unremunerative. Loss of interest in agriculture and the lure of urban environment have only exacerbated the situation. There are impending signs of a gulf developing between the rural and urban Kammas.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ W. C. Plowden, 1883, The Indian Empire Census of 1881, Statistics of Population Vol. II., Calcutta, p. 30
  2. ^ Statistics of population: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/working-papers/179-caste-class-social-articulation-andhra-pradesh-india.pdf
  3. ^ Caste, Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh: Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories, K. Sreinivasulu, Department of Political Science, Osmania University, 2002, Hyderabad, p.3
  4. ^ Suri, K. C., 2002, Overseas Development Institute, UK: http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/working-papers/180-democratic-process-electoral-politics-andhra-pradesh-india.pdf
  5. ^ a b c Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu language) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur
  6. ^ Telugu Vignana Sarvaswamu, Volume 2, History, Telugu University, Hyderabad
  7. ^ Telugu-English Dictionary, by V. R. Vemuri, 2003, Asian Educational Services, p. 99, ISBN 8120616375
  8. ^ A History of Telugu Literature, Chenchaiah, B. and Bhujanga Rao, R. M., 1988, Asian Educational Services, p.50, ISBN 8120603133
  9. ^ Buddhist Stupas of Amaravathi and Jaggayyapeta, Madras Presidency, J. Burgess, 1886, p. 110
  10. ^ Epigraphica Indica, Vol VIII, pp. 233-236 (Chandaluru copper plate inscription of Kumara Vishnu)
  11. ^ Epigraphica Indica, Vol XV, pp. 249-252 (Ongole copper plate inscription of Pallava king Vijaya Skandavarma)
  12. ^ Epigraphica Indica, Vol XVIII, p. 250 (Kopparapu copper plate inscription of Pulakesi II, 7th century CE)
  13. ^ Epigraphica Indica, Vol XVIII, p. 27 (Aluru inscription of Chalukya king Vikramaditya V, 1011 CE)
  14. ^ Copper-plate and Stone Inscriptions of South India, A. Butterworth and V. C. Venugopal, 1905, Government Press, Madras; Sundeep Prakashan, 2006, ISBN 8185066639
  15. ^ C., Veerabhadra Rao (1910). Andhrula Charitra (PDF). Vol 1. p. 232.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  16. ^ Garuda Purana: Aik Adhyan, Pt. Avadh Bihari Lal Avasthi, p. 28
  17. ^ Garuda Purana (1/15/13)
  18. ^ Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu language) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur (A Brief History of Kammas, K. B. Choudary, 1954, University of California, Digitized 2007)
  19. ^ Buddhist Heritage of Andhra Pradesh
  20. ^ Samagra Andhra Desa Charitra-Samskriti, Volume III, 2002, M. H. Rao, Kamalaa Publications, Hyderabad
  21. ^ The Buddhist Stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta, Madras Presidency, J. Burgess, 1886
  22. ^ Copper-plate and Stone Inscriptions of South India, A. Butterworth and V. C. Venugopal, 1905, Government Press, Madras; Sundeep Prakashan, 2006, ISBN 8185066639 (Konidena inscription of Tribhuvana Malla – 1146 CE)
  23. ^ Journal of Andhra History and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Inscription of Paruchuri Ketinayudu)
  24. ^ Padmanayaka Charitra by Sarvagna Singabhupala (in Telugu)
  25. ^ Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, R. B. Russell and R. B. H. Lai, 1995, Asian Educational Services, p. 372, ISBN 812060833X
  26. ^ South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 243 and 317
  27. ^ Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy Vol 38, No. 346
  28. ^ Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy, Vol. 38, No. 348
  29. ^ Journal of Andhra History and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 2
  30. ^ Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy, 1916, Vol. 15, No. 333, p. 135
  31. ^ Kakatiya inscriptions, A R #539, No. 442: http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume10/kakatiya_dynasty_2.html
  32. ^ Kammavari Charitra, Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939, Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur
  33. ^ Velugotivari Vamsavali English Translation by N. Venkataramanayya
  34. ^ Ahalyasankrandanavilasamu
  35. ^ Andhrula Charitra, C. Virabhadra Rao (in Telugu)(http://ia331307.us.archive.org/1/items/andhrulacharitra025965mbp/andhrulacharitra025965mbp.pdf)
  36. ^ Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur, pp. 10-13, 15
  37. ^ Velugotivari Vamsavali, English Translation by N. Venkataramanaiah
  38. ^ Padmanayakacharitra, Sarvajna Singabhupala (in Telugu)
  39. ^ Kammavari Charitra (in Telugu) by Kotha Bhavaiah Chowdary, 1939. Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur. pp. 31-32
  40. ^ A History of the Early Dynasties of Andhradesa, c. 200-625, B. V. Krishnarao, V. R. Sastrulu, Madras, 1942, p. 370; http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ONSCAAAAIAAJ&q=dharanikota&dq=dharanikota&lr=&pgis=1
  41. ^ The History of Andhra Country, Yashoda Devi, Gyan Publishing house, New Delhi; http://books.google.co.in/books?id=-d9IAvFOUHsC&pg=PA171&dq=dhanyakataka&lr=#PPA159,M1
  42. ^ The History of Andhras, Durga Prasad (http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf)
  43. ^ Nritya Ratnavali (http://www.telugupeople.com/discussion/article.asp?id=111
  44. ^ The Castes and Tribes of H.E.H. Nizam's Dominions, S. S. Hassan, 1989, Asian Educational Services, p. 308, ISBN 8120604881
  45. ^ Bhimeswara Puranamu, Srinatha, 1-31 (in Telugu)
  46. ^ [Inscription 421 States that Dadi Ganna-Nayaka made a gift of land http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume10/kakatiya_dynasty_1.html]
  47. ^ Artibus Asiae, Wagoner, P. B and Rice, J. H., 2001, 61:77-117
  48. ^ Delhi Sultanate: A political and Military History, Peter Jackson, 1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
  49. ^ The Cambridge History of Islam, B. Lewis, A. K. S. Lambton and P. M. Holtp, Cambridge University Press, 1977, p 19, ISBN 0521291372
  50. ^ Sri Marana Markandeya Puranamu, G. V. Subrahmanyam, 1984, Sahitya Academy, Hyderabad, p. 185
  51. ^ Prolaya's Vilasa Grant; Epigraphica Indica 32: 239-268
  52. ^ The History of Andhras, Durga Prasad (http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf), p. 168
  53. ^ Pre-colonial India in Practice, Cynthia Talbot, 2001, Oxford University Press, pp.177-182, ISBN 0195136616
  54. ^ Further Sources of Vijayanagara History, K. A. Nilakanta Sastry, 1946.
  55. ^ Kamma Commanders of the Vijayanagara Empire, K. I. Dutt, In: Journal of the Andhra Historical Society, 1926, Vol. X, p. 223
  56. ^ Vijayanagara Voices by William Jackson, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2005, p.124, ISBN 0754639509
  57. ^ Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society, 1926 Vol. X, K. Iswara Dutt, pp. 222-224
  58. ^ Vijayanagara, Burton Stein, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p.88, ISBN 0521266939
  59. ^ Vijayanagara, Burton Stein, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p.92, ISBN 0521266939
  60. ^ Krishnaraja Vijayamu, Kumara Dhurjati
  61. ^ Tidings of the king: a translation and ethnohistorical analysis of the Rayavachakamu, Phillip B. Wagoner, 1993, (ISBN 0-8248-1495-9).
  62. ^ A Forgotten empire (Vijayanagar): A Contribution to the History of India, Robert Sewell. (http://historion.net/r.sewell-vijayanagar-history-india
  63. ^ Sougandhika Prasavapaharanamu, Ratnakaram Gopala Kavi
  64. ^ The Aristocracy of Southern India, A. Vadivelu, 1984, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p. 167
  65. ^ Textures of Time: Writing History in South India, V. Narayanarau, D. D. Shulman and S. Subrahmanyam, 2003, Other Press LLC, p. 264, ISBN 1590510445
  66. ^ Kammavari Charitra, K. B. Choudary, 1939, Revised Edition (2006), Pavuluri Publishers, Guntur
  67. ^ History of Vasireddy Clan
  68. ^ Krishna District Manual, Colonel Gordon Mackenzie, Madras Presidency, 1883, Asian Educational Services, 1990, ISBN 8120605446
  69. ^ Sri Raja Vasireddy Venkadadri Nayudu, 1963, K. Lakshminarayana.
  70. ^ Gazetteer of the Nellore District: Madras District, Government Press, Madras, 1942, p.104
  71. ^ Castes and Tribes of Southern India, 1965, Edgar Thurston.
  72. ^ Farmers of India, 1959, M. S. Randhawa, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
  73. ^ Parties, Elections and Mobilisation, K. R. Murty, 2001, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, p. 20
  74. ^ Education and the Disprivileged, S. Bhattacharya, 2002, Orient Longman, p. 58, ISBN 8125021922
  75. ^ Caste and the Andhra Communists, S. Harrison, APSR, Vol. 50, pp. 378-404
  76. ^ Vijayanagara, Burton Stein, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p.46, ISBN 0521266939
  77. ^ Globalising Food, D. Goodman, 1997, Routledge, p. 91, ISBN 0415162521
  78. ^ Fraternal Capital, Sharad Chari, 2004, Stanford University Press, p. 162, ISBN 080474873X
  79. ^ The Voyage to Excellence, N. Amarnath, 2005, Pustak Mahal, p.122,ISBN 8122309046
  80. ^ Rural Society in Southeast Asia, K. Gough, 1981, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 29, ISBN 0521040191
  81. ^ The Indian Empire Census of 1881, Statistics of Population Vol. II., W. C. Plowden, 1883, Calcutta, p. 30
  82. ^ Political Parties in South Asia, S. K. Mitra and M. Enskat, 2004, Praeger/Greenwood, p.115, ISBN 0275968324
  83. ^ The Impact of Asian Powers on Global Developments, E. Reiter and P. Hazdra, 2004, Springer, p. 125, ISBN 3790800929

References

Inscriptions

  • Konidena inscription of Tribhuvana Malla – 1146 CE
  • South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 243 and 317
  • Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy Vol. 38, No. 346 (Inscription of Pinnama Nayudu)
  • Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy, Vol. 38, No. 348 (Inscription of Devineni Erra Nayudu)
  • Journal of Andhra History and Culture, Vol. 1, No. 2
  • Annual Report of Madras Epigraphy, 1916, Vol. 15, No. 333, p. 135 (Details of Rudrama's bodyguards).
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