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Hakka people

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For other uses, see Hakka.
Not to be confused with Haka.
This article is about the Hakka people. For the Hakka language, see Hakka Chinese.
Hakka
客家 Hak-kâ
客家漢族[1]
Regions with significant populations
Greater China (Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Taiwan), Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore)
Languages
Hakka + language(s) of their country of residence
Religion
Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Traditional Chinese religion. Minority Christianity.
Related ethnic groups
Other Han Chinese, She people
Hakka people
Chinese客家
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinkèjiā
Gan
RomanizationKak6 Ga1
Hakka
Romanizationhag2 ga24
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpinghaak3 gaa1

The Hakka people (Hakka language: 客家人 Hak-kâ ngin; Mandarin Chinese: 客家人 Kèjiā ren) also known as Hakka Han,[1][2] are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and based in the provinces of Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian in China. Their ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago.[3] It is said that in a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world.[4] They have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history: in particular, they have been a source of revolutionary, political, and military leaders.

Migrations and group identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).[citation needed]

One theory of the Hakka people's origins suggests they could be related to the Xiongnu nomadic people, who had a considerable, sometimes dominating presence in northern China from the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220) period to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589)[5], merging and assimilating within the general Han populace. However, the more commonly held view is the Hakka are a subgroup of the Han Chinese. Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and continued invasion by foreign forces since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty in the 10th century and during the end of the Northern Song Dynasty in 1125 which saw a massive flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital of Bianliang. A further southward migration may have continued as then Mongols defeated the Jurchen Jin Dynasty and proceeded to take down the Southern Song, establishing the Yuan Dynasty in 1271. It's unclear the precise movements of the Hakka people when the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Yuan in the 14th century, and subsequently fell to the Manchus who formed the Qing Dynasty in 16th century.

During the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地, "original land") of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. People were also able to purchase and sell land. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years, and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes known as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥) in the Pearl River Delta. The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact the 'locals' were composed of different people speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as typical of the Chinese country-side all over China, but they would regard each other as 'locals' or Puntis but not the Hakkas.

The term 'Punti' is not however synonymous with 'Cantonese', as a Cantonese in any other part of China, say for example Beijing, would not be able to call himself a 'Punti', as the puntis of that area would be of Beijing or Hebei people.

The term 'Punti' is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. In Cantonese, the Hakka word 'Punti' is pronounced 'boon-day'.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups e.g. in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.

Although different, and also not different, in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, the Hakkas are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties. With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among both the Hakka newcomers and the indigenous people, and between the She and Hakka.

However, according to the recent 2009 studies made by American Journal of Human Genetics, it was found that comparing with other Southern Hans, Hakka's gene are slightly tilted towards Northern Hans. Nevertheless, the study has shown a strong common genetic relationship between all Han Chinese with only 0.3％ difference.[6]

The Hakkas have a custom of buying the unwanted baby daughters of the Yue puntis in Guangdong, as Puntis favored sons over daughters. These Punti-moys (本地妹) then made brides for Hakka sons when they grew up. Hakka daughters did not enter Punti households in the same way, and there is no equivalent Hakka-mui term in the Punti vocabulary. The Yue punti genes thus entered Hakka populations.

Social and cultural influences

Tulou buildings in Fujian

Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakkas have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (See Hakka cuisine).

When Hakkas expanded into areas with pre-existing populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.

Unlike the majority of other Han Chinese women, Hakka women did not practice footbinding.

Hakka people built Tulou buildings which has been inscribed in 2008 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site[7].

Martial arts

The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist). Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practised by the Hakkas.

Hakkas in China

Meizhou Prefecture (in yellow) in Guangdong Province, where Xingning and Meixian are located

In Guangdong

The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).

In Fujian

It was said that the early Hakka ancestors traveled from north China entered Fujian first, then through Tingjiang river they traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China and overseas. So Tingjiang river is also regarded as Hakka's Mother River.

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

In Jiangxi

Nearly all of southern Jiangxi province is Hakka, especially in Ganzhou.

In Sichuan

Emperor Kangxi (reigned AD 1662 to AD 1722), after a tour of the land, decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after many wars. Seeing the Hakkas were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province the Emperor encouraged the Hakkas in the south to emigrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those who were willing to resettle in Sichuan; eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child.

In Hong Kong

During the late Ming and Qing Dynasties, Hong Kong was in the imperial district of Xin-An (Now Shenzhen) County.[8] The 1819 gazetteer lists 570 Punti and 270 Hakka contemporary settlements in the whole district.[9]. However, the area covered by Xin-An county is greater than what was to become the British imperial enclave of Hong Kong by 1899. Although there had been settlers originating from the mainland proper even before the Tang Dynasty, historical records of those people are non-extant, only evidence of settlement from archaeological sources can be found.[10] The New Territories lowland areas had been settled originally by several clan lineages in Kam Tin, Sheung Shui, FanLing, Yuen Long and Taipo, and hence termed the Punti before the arrival of the Hakka, and fishing families of the Tanka and Hoklo groups to the area[11]. Since the prime farming land had already been farmed, the Hakka land dwellers settled in the less accessible and more hilly areas. Hakka settlements can be found widely distributed around the Punti areas, but in smaller communities. Many are found on coastal areas in inlets and bays surrounded by hills.

Hakka dialect speaking communities are thought to have arrived in the Hong Kong area after the rescinding of the coastal evacuation order in 1688.[12], such as the Hakka speaking Lee clan lineage of Wo Hang, one of whose ancestors is recorded as arriving in the area in 1688.

As the strong Punti lineages dominated most of the north western New Territories, Hakka communities began to organise local alliances of lineage communties such as the Sha Tau Kok Alliance of Ten or Shap Yeuk as Patrick Hase writes.[13]. Hakka villages from Wo Hang to the west and YanTian to the east of Sha Tau Kok came to use it as a local market town and it became the center of Hakka dominance. Further, the Shap Yeuk's land reclamation project transforming marshland to arable farmland with the creation of dykes and levvies to prevent storm flooding during the early nineteenth century shows an example of how local cooperation and the growing affluence of the landed lineages in the Alliance of Ten provided the strong cultural, socioeconomic Hakka influence on the area.

Farming and cultivation has been the traditional occupations of Hakka families from imperial times up until the 1970s. Farming was mostly done by Hakka women while their menfolk sought labouring jobs in the towns and cities. Many men entered indentured labour abroad as was common from the end of the 19th century to Second World War. Post war, males took the opportunity to seek work in Britain and other countries later to send for their families to join them once they sent enough money back to cover travel costs.

As post war education became available to all children in Hong Kong, a new educated class of Hakka became more mobile in their careers. Many moved to the government planned new towns which sprung up from the 1960s. The rural Hakka population began to decline as people moved abroad, and away to work in the urban areas. By the end of the 1970s, agriculture was firmly in the decline in Hakka villages.[14] Today, there are still Hakka villages around Hong Kong, but being remote, many of their inhabitants have moved to the post war new towns like Sheung Shui, TaiPo, Shatin and further afield.

Cuisine

The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food - the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats, 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate have a central place in their repertoire. In fact the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine, what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat. Most of the Chinese restaurants in the United Kingdom are owned by Hakkas.[citation needed]

The Hakkas who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats, instead emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Tza Da Tzang). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choy (盆菜).[15] While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population. Offal in China was/is also more expensive than meat, as was/is fatty pork more expensive than lean pork. Offal was/is a premier food in China. Other dishes consumed by Hakkas and many Chinese include chicken's feet and duck's feet.

Modern society

It should be noted that the Hakka's modern societal structure and experience includes far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.

Preservation

In the latter half of the 20th century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously on 1997 by Dr CF Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong.

Hakkas worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and Myanmar.

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There was once a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Taiwan or Austria. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, the Hokkien (Minnan) pronunciation of the Hak in Hakka.

Hakkas in Indonesia

Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Bangka Island and Belitung islands as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Kalimantan in the 19th century. The Kwangtung Hakka settlers even established the Lanfang Republic in Western Kalimantan which lasted 107 years and had 10 presidents in 1777, until it was ended by Dutch occupation in 1884. In the early 20th century, new arrivals from Meixian joined their compatriots as traders and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta and Pontianak.

Bangka Belitung

Hakkas also live in Indonesia's largest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province.[16] They are the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000.[17] The Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia.

The first ancestors of Hakkas in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in the 1700s from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have remained on the island along with the native Malay. Their situation was much different from those of Chinese and native populations of other regions, where legal cultural conflicts were prevalent since the 1960s until 1999, by which Indonesian Chinese had finally regained their cultural freedoms. Here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festivals, such as in celebrating the Chinese New Year and Qingming, while in other regions they were strictly banned by government legislation prior to 1999.[18] The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism and Buddhism, with a significant number who are Christian. A small number are of confessed Islam as some have married Malays.

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by Malay, especially in younger generations. The younger generations speak much more Malay than the older Hakka. As Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words, differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely; the Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas of other regions. However, they still refer to themselves as Thong ngin as do the younger people, and speak Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular, as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Muntok area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakkas in the province have moved outside the islands, especially to Jakarta. There are more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta who speak both Malay and Thong boi.

There is also a large Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who live abroad, such as in China and Hongkong. They are proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so they regularly return home once or twice a year to celebrate Chinese New Year, or to pay their respects at Qingming.[19][20]

Pontianak

Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the hakkas are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochews dialect and vocabularies from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.

The Hakkas in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.

Singkawang

The Hakkas in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speak a different standard of Hakka dialect to the Hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu (Dabu 大埔), a district in Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas.

Jakarta

Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increase with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.

In East Timor

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion, many Hakkas were killed. According to a book source, it was estimated that about 700 Hakkas were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakkas evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka associations registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remaining (400 families, including part Timorese families) in East Timor.

Now Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their education in Taiwan or China, while a majority of the younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, as partially related to the political situation in East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, nor to grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakkas had become successful, and established restaurant chains, shops, supermarkets, and import operations in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2000, some Hakka families had returned and invested in businesses in the newborn nation.

In Malaysia

Hakkas form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. During this time, Chung Keng Quee, Capitan China of Perak and Penang was founder of Taiping, leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist, an innovator in the mining of tin and was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions, founded Kuala Lumpur and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese.

In East Malaysia, they form a significant part of the Bornean state of Sabah where most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. The story goes that in the late 19th century, the British, who had just colonised Sabah (then known as British North Borneo), opted to bring in Hakka labourers from Guangdong country because the Hakka were known to be industrious workers. The first batch of Hakkas brought here landed in Kudat on April 4, 1883 under the leadership of Lo Tai Fung. In the following decades Hakka immigrants settled throughout the state, with their main population centres in Kota Kinabalu (then known as Jesselton), Sandakan, Tawau and Kudat. According to the 1991 census, there were 113000 Hakkas in the state. This constituted 57% of the total ethnic Chinese population in Sabah. The second largest Chinese subgroup were the Cantonese with only 28000 persons.[21] This shows that Sabah is one of very few regions in the world where Hakkas clearly outnumber other Chinese subgroups. Most of the Hakkas in Sabah speak with the Huiyang accent (Hakka: Fuiyong, 惠陽). Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah to such an extent that Chinese of other subgroups who migrate to Sabah from other states in Malaysia and elsewhere usually end up learning the Hakka dialect.

In Jamaica

Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica on 3 major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. Under the terms of the contract, free return passage was available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did.[22] In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of Yellow Fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Less than 50 of these immigrants survived. The rest died of Yellow Fever.

Chin Pa-kung (a.ka. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.[23]

During the 1960s-1970s, there was substantial migration of Hakka Jamaican Chinese to the USA and Canada.

In Mauritius

The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.

As of 2008, the total population of Sino-Mauritian, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.

In Réunion

Many of Chinese people in Réunion are of Hakka origin.[24] They either came to Réunion as indentured workers or as voluntary migrants.[24] Today, most do not speak the Hakka language.[24]

In Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15-20% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the second largest ethnic group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung.

Many people in Taiwan are of mixed Hoklo, Hakka, and Formosan aboriginal heritage. Approximately half of the population of Hakka in Taiwan also speak Taiwanese Hokkien, and it is highly likely that many Taiwanese-speaking households were descendants of Hakka families in Taiwan who lost their language a few generations back.

In Thailand

There are no records as to when Hakka descendants pioneered into Thailand. In 1901, Mr. Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that the establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. So, he tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the associations in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 "The Hakka Society of Siam" was established, and Chao Phraya Yommarat, then Interior Minister, was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the establishment of the society's nameplate, located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Mr. Yang Liqing was its first President.[25]

World Hakka Congress

No Year City Country
1 1971 Hong Kong China
2 1973 Taipei Taiwan
3 1976 Taipei Taiwan
4 1978 San Francisco USA
5 1980 Tokyo Japan
6 1982 Bangkok Thailand
7 1984 Taipei Taiwan
8 1986 Mauritius Mauritius
9 1988 San Francisco USA
10 1990 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia
11 1992 Kaoshiung Taiwan
12 1994 Meixian, Guangdong China
13 1996 Singapore Singapore
14 1998 Miaoli Taiwan
15 1999 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
16 2000 Longyan, Fujian China
17 2001 Jakarta Indonesia
18 2003 Zhengzhou, Henan China
19 2004 Ganzhou, Jiangxi China
20 2005 Chengdu, Sichuan China
21 2006 Taipei Taiwan
22 2008 Xi'an, Shaanxi China
23 2010 Heyuan, Guangdong China
24 2011 Beihai, Guangxi China

Prominent Hakkas

The Hakkas have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.

Hakkas were active during the Taiping Rebellion [Jonathan D. Spence, "God's Chinese Son", 1997 - see references], the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian Uprising, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Xiuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces. The hugely disciplined Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured stoutly-defended towns and cities from the Qing defenders. In 1851, less than a year after the uprising, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 太平天囯 was established. It had, at one stage, occupied one-third of China, and almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. The kingdom lasted for eleven years.

Hakkas continue to play prominent roles during the revolutionary and republican years of Kuomintang, as well as during the Chinese Civil War between Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, to which many of the leaders on both sides are Hakkas.

Lee Kuan Yew, Sun Yat Sen, and Deng Xiao Ping were among four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine.[26]

Hakkas' influence is also evident in Guangdong, China, where the "Hakka Gang" "客家帮" has consistently dominated the provincial government. Presently, the governor, Huang Huahua, and four deputy governors are Hakkas.[27]

Revolutionaries and politicians

  • Malaysia
    • Yap Ah Loy 葉亞來/叶亚来 (1837-1885; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in China), Founder of Kuala Lumpur
    • Chung Keng Quee 鄭景貴/郑景贵 (1827-1901; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in China), Founder of Taiping, Perak; Kapitan China, Penang and Perak
    • Yap Kwan Seng 葉觀盛/叶观盛 [34] (1846-1902; Chixi, Guangdong; born in China), Last Kapitan China, Kuala Lumpur, 1989-1902; A major road, Jalan Yap Kwan Seng, in Kuala Lumpur was named after him
    • Chung Thye Phin 鄭大平/郑大平 (1879-1935; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Last Kapitan China, Perak
    • Datuk Seri Lau Pak Khuan 劉伯群/刘伯群 (1894-1971; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in China), Founding member of Malaysian Chinese Association; First Chinese to be conferred the "Datuk Seri" title by Malaysia Sultan; Led the unsuccessful bid for Chinese equal citizenship rights and official language status during drafting of Malaysia Constitution
    • Tan Sri Wong Pow Nee 王保尼, (1911-2002; born in Malaysia), Chief Minister of Penang, 1957–1969
    • Datuk Peter Lo Sui Yin 羅思仁/罗思仁 (Longchuan, Guangdong), Chief Minister of Sabah, 1965–67
    • Datuk Yong Teck Lee 楊德利/杨德利 (1958-; Longchuan, Guangdong), Chief Minister of Sabah, 1996–1998
    • Tan Sri Chong Kah Kiat 章家杰 (1948-), Chief Minister of Sabah, 2001–2003
    • Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Yong Kuet Tze 楊國斯/杨国斯 (1921-2001; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), former Minister of Science, Technology & Environment
    • Peter Chin Fah Kui 陳華貴/陈华贵 (1945-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Plantation Industries and Commodities Minister, Malaysia, 2004-
    • Liow Tiong Lai 廖中莱 (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Health Minister, Malaysia, 2008-
    • Teresa Kok 郭素沁 (1964-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Member of Parliament, 1999-; Won by the highest majority among 200 seats contested in the 2008 General Elections
    • Cheong Fatt Tze張弼士(1840-1916),a Hakka born in 1840 in Dabu, Guangdong Province. he was appointed the Chinese Consul, based in Penang in 1890. Minister for agriculture, industries, roads and mines for the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong for Qing Dynasty in 1899. He was member of the Legislative Assembly of Republic of China in 1912. A street in Penang, Malaysia was named after him.
  • Indonesia
    • Low Lan Pak 羅芳伯/罗芳伯 (1738-1778; Meixian, Guangdong), Founder and President, Hakka Lanfang Republic (present Western Kalimantan, now part of Indonesia), 1777–1884
    • Hasan Karman 黄少凡 (Meixian; Guangdong; born in Indonesia), Mayor of Singkawang, West Kalimantan; Indonesia's first Chinese mayor
  • Timor-Leste
    • Pedro Lay (born in East Timor), Minister of Infrastructure, 2007-
    • Gil Alves (born in East Timor), Minister of Tourism, Commerce & Industry, 2007-
  • Mauritius
    • Sir Moilin Jean Ah-Chuen 朱梅麟 (1909-1991; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), First Chinese member, Legislative Council, 1949; Minister of Local Government, 1967–1976; Second Hakka after Sun Yatsen to have his portrait printed on the bills of a country's currency [37]
    • Noel Lee Cheong Lem 李國華/李国华 (1951-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Tourism, 1993–1995
    • Joseph Tsang Mang Kin 曾繁興/曾繁兴 (1938-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Art and Culture, 1995–2000
    • Emmanuel Jean Leung Shing 陳念汀/陈念汀 (1944-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Justice and Human Rights, 2000–2005
    • Sylvio Tang Wah Hing 鄧學升/邓学升 (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Youth and Sports, 2005–2007

Government officials

Entrepreneurs and corporate figures

Literary figures, artists, academics and scientists

  • Huang Zunxian 黃遵憲/黄遵宪 (1848-1905; Meixian, Guangdong), Poet, writer and diplomat
  • Yong Mun Sen (Yong Yen Lang) 楊曼生/杨曼生 (1896-1962; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia); Pioneer artist and the father of Malaysian painting
  • Lo Hsiang-lin 羅香林/罗香林 (1906-1978, Xingning, Guangdong), Scholar on Hakka culture and language
  • Teng Yu-hsien 鄧雨賢/邓雨贤 (1906-1944; born in Taiwan), Taiwanese composer
  • Li Guohao 李國豪/李国豪 (1913-2005; Meixian, Guangdong), One of the top bridge experts in the world
  • Ivan A. Taslimson (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Indonesia), Artist, scientist, inventor, US tech tycoon. Founder of Solstice Group
  • Chung Li-ho 鐘理和/钟理和 (1915-1960; born in Taiwan), Famous Taiwanese novelist
  • Han Suyin 韓素音/韩素音 (1917-; Xinyang, Henan), Author of books on modern China
  • Lin Haiyin 林海音 (1918-2001; Jiaoling, Guangdong; born in Japan), Taiwanese novelist whose memoirs, 城南旧事 (My Memories of Old Beijing), was made into a movie of the same name
  • Shing-Tung Yau 丘成桐 (1949-; Jiaoling, Guangdong), Chinese-American mathematician

Actors, musicians and entertainers

  • Hong Kong
    • Chor Yuen 楚原 (1934-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Hong Kong film director
    • Leslie Cheung 張國榮/张国荣 [43] (1956-2003; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Famous singer/actor
    • Chow Yun-Fat 周潤發/周润发 [44][45] (1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), One of the most famous actors in Asia; Lead actor in several Hollywood movies
    • Leon Lai 黎明 (1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Singer/actor; One of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
    • Alex Man 萬梓良/万梓良 (1957-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor; Best Actor, Golden Horse Awards, 1988
    • Cherie Chung 鍾楚紅/钟楚紅 (1960-; Boluo, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actress
    • Jordan Chan 陳小春/陈小春 [46](1967-, Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor/singer
    • Eric Tsang 曾志偉/曾志伟 (1953-; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor/comedian
    • Frances Yip 葉麗儀/叶丽仪 (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Singer
    • Deanie Ip 葉德嫻/叶德娴 (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Dapengcheng), Singer/actress
    • Teresa Cheung Tak Lan 張德蘭/张德兰 (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Popular Hong Kong singer in the 1970s-1980s
    • Chan Wai-Man 陳惠敏/陈惠敏 [47] (1946-; born in Hong Kong); Actor who is well-known for triad chief roles
    • Shing Fui-On 成奎安 (1955-2009; Xingning, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Actor who is well-known for bad guy roles
    • Angeline Leung 梁韵蕊 (Meixian, Guangdong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1982
    • Shallin Tse 謝寧/谢宁 (1963-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1985
    • Shirley Yeung 楊思琦/杨思琦 (1978-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2001
    • Fiona Yuen 袁彩雲 (1976-; born in Germany), Second runner-up, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1996
    • Kate Tsui 徐子珊 (1979-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2004
    • Shermon Tang 鄧上文/邓上文 (1983-; born in Hong Kong), Miss Photogenic, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2005
  • Taiwan
    • Hou Hsiao-Hsien 侯孝賢/侯孝贤 (1947-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Award-winning film director and a leading figure of Taiwan's New Wave cinema movement
    • Edward Yang 楊德昌/杨德昌 (1947-2007; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Film director; Best Director, Cannes Film Festival, 2000
    • Luo Dayou 羅大佑/罗大佑 (1954-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Influential singer-songwriter who revolutionized Chinese pop and rock music in the 1980s
    • Hebe Tien 田馥甄 (1983-; born in Taiwan), Member of S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
    • Ella Chen 陳嘉樺 (1981-; born in Taiwan), Member of S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
    • Joe Zhang Shu Wei 張書偉 (1980-; born in Taiwan), Members of ENERGY, Male pop group
    • Chen Qiao En 陳喬恩/陈乔恩 (1979-; born in Taiwan), Leading actress of Taiwan idol dramas, co-leader of 7 Flowers, Taiwanese female pop group
    • Shino Lin 林曉培/林晓培 (born in Taiwan), Singer
    • Julia Peng 彭佳慧 (1972-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Singer
    • Alec Su 蘇有朋/苏有朋 [48] (1973-, born in Taiwan), Actor/singer
    • Bowie Tsang 曾寶儀/曾宝仪 (1973-; Wuhua, Guangdong), Compere/singer/actress
    • Chen Chien-Chou 陳建洲/陈建洲 (Blackie 黑人) (1977-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan), Compere; Former national basketballer, Chinese Taipei national basketball team
  • China
    • Huang Wanqiu 黄婉秋 (1943-; Meixian, Guangdong), Lead actress of the classic movie, "Third Sister Liu" 刘三姐
    • Li Ai 李艾 (Meixian, Guangdong), Supermodel and one of China's most recognizable media personalities; Host, "China's Next Top Model"
  • Singapore
    • Fann Wong 范文芳 (1971-; born in Singapore), Actress/singer/model
    • Adrian Pang 彭耀順/彭耀顺 (1966-; born in Malaysia), Actor; Best Actor for Comedy Performance, Asian Television Awards, 2002
    • Xie Shaoguang 謝韶光/谢韶光 (1960-; born in Singapore), Actor; Best Actor, Asian Television Awards, 1998; Five-time winner of Singapore's best television actor award
    • Felicia Chin 陳靚瑄/陈靓瑄 (1984-; born in Singapore), Actress; Female winner, Star Search, 2003; Member of the Singapore national softball team at the age of 15[citation needed]
    • Wong Lilin 黃麗玲/黄丽玲 (born in Singapore), Actress
    • Michelle Chong 莊米雪/庄米雪 (1977-; born in Singapore), Actress/compere
    • Maggie Teng 鄧妙華/邓妙华 (born in Singapore), Singer; First Singaporean to break into Taiwan pop music industry in the 1980s[citation needed]
    • Lee Wei Song 李偉菘/李伟菘 (1966-; born in Singapore) and Lee Shih Shiong 李偲菘 (1966-; born in Singapore), Well-known songwriters[citation needed]
    • Ho Yeow Sun 何耀珊 (born in Singapore), Singer; First and only Asian singer to top the US Billboard Dance Chart and the UK MusicWeek Chart; Performed the Olympic Hymn, which was sung in Mandarin for the first time, accompanied by a choir of Overseas Chinese from 16 different nationalities for 2008 Beijing Olympics
    • Yew Hong Chow 遊宏釗/游宏钊, Classical musician and harmonica virtuso
  • Malaysia
    • Eric Moo 巫啟賢/巫启贤 (1963-; born in Malaysia), Award winning singer/composer/producer
    • Michael Wong 王光良 (1970-; born in Malaysia) and Victor Wong 黄品冠 (1972-; Jieyang, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Singer-songwriters of "Guang Liang Pin Guan" 光良品冠 / "Wu Yin Liang Pin" 无印良品 fame
    • Penny Tai 戴佩妮 (1978-; Haifeng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Singer-songwriter; Best Composer, Golden Melody Awards, 2006
    • Z-Chen 張智成/张智成 (1973-; born in Malaysia), Singer; Known as "The Little Prince of R&B"
    • Gary Chaw 曹格 (1979-; born in Malaysia), Singer; Winner, Best Male Mandarin Singer, Golden Melody Awards, 2008
    • Wong Sze Zen (born in Malaysia), Miss Malaysia/World, 2003
    • Lim Pey Yeng 林佩盈 (born in Malaysia), First Runner Up, Miss Astro Chinese International Pegeant 2000, Famous TV / Event Host
  • Indonesia

Sportspersons

Others

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Rubinstein, M. A (2004), Rethinking Taiwanese and Chinese Identity: Melissa J. Brown's Is Taiwan Chinese? (PDF), vol. 40, Institute of International Relations, pp. 454–458, ISBN 1013-2511 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
  2. ^ Guangdong Hakka culture Newsgd.com.2009-August-24.Retrieved on 2010-March 6
  3. ^ http://www.asiawind.com/hakka/history.htm
  4. ^ http://english.longyan.gov.cn/hakka/200810/t20081031_66680.htm
  5. ^ http://lozada.davidson.edu/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/cyberhak.pdf
  6. ^ 星破解漢人基因圖譜 南北華人基因差異微妙 Yahoo News retrieved 2010-01-15
  7. ^ Fujian Tulou - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
  8. ^ New Peace County, A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region Peter Y.L. Ng, Hong Kong University Press, 1983. ISBN 962-209-043-5.
  9. ^ Ng (1983), p. 84.
  10. ^ See p.12, 圖片 香港今昔 by 高添強 (Gao TianQiang), 三聯書店. (1997 2nd Ed.) ISBN 962-04-1180-3
  11. ^ Gao 1997, p.16.
  12. ^ Down to Earth. The Territorial Bond in South China. ed. David Faure & Helen Siu, Stanford University Press. (1995) ISBN 0-8047-2434-2. See p.123-160, in Patrick Hase's article 'Alliance of Ten'.
  13. ^ p.123-160, Faure & Siu, (1995)
  14. ^ Gao, (1997)
  15. ^ Sterling, Richard. Chong, Elizabeth. Qin, Lushan Charles. [2001] (2001) World Food Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Lonely Planet Publishing. ISBN 1-86450-288-6
  16. ^ "Dari Tiongkok ke Pulau Bangka Bedol Desa ala Kuli Tionghoa". AMCA. August 19, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ "Hakka ngin in Bangka Islands, Indonesia". Asiawind. October 27, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ^ "Kebersamaan Tanpa Prasangka". KOMPAS. August 23, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ "Menengok Kelenteng-kelenteng Tua di Bangka". KOMPAS. April 15, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ "Ribuan Warga Tionghoa Rayakan Ceng Beng". KOMPAS. August 19, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=1&i=4039&t=4028
  22. ^ Hakka Chinese Jamaican
  23. ^ Jamaica Gleaner: Pieces of the Past: The Arrival Of The Chinese
  24. ^ a b c Thunø, Mette (2007). Beyond Chinatown: new Chinese migration and the global expansion of China. NIAS Press. p. 234. ISBN 8776940004, 9788776940003. Retrieved 2009-11-24. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)
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  26. ^ "Asians of the Century". Time. August 23, 1999. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
  27. ^ "港报:黄华华传调京 跻身中国领导人".
  28. ^ "浓浓乡情系中原—访孙中山先生孙女孙穗芳博士 - 我的祖父是客家人".
  29. ^ "李登辉助选新招：客家人厉害 连战很客气".
  30. ^ "福建办世界客属恳亲会不欢迎李登辉".
  31. ^ "忘记就是背叛——福建南靖吕氏宗亲痛责吕秀莲".
  32. ^ "China has new chief, but power may lie elsewhere".
  33. ^ "LIAO CHENGZHI, 75, A CHINESE LEADER". The New York Times. June 11, 1983. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
  34. ^ "Last Kapitan's legacy lives on".
  35. ^ "Thai PM seeks out roots in Meizhou".
  36. ^ "泰国总理他信：我是华裔客家人".
  37. ^ "Mauritius Bank Notes".
  38. ^ "亚洲人在澳洲的骄傲 阿得雷德华人市长黄国鑫".
  39. ^ "Robert Chong".
  40. ^ "Guangxi Hakka Zhang Jiuhuan, China's Ambassador to Singapore".
  41. ^ "张九桓：桂东南小山村走出来的外交官".
  42. ^ "大溪地珍珠王助华裔馆出版《海外华人百科全书》法文版".
  43. ^ "張綠萍談弟弟張國榮".
  44. ^ "Honorary Doctor of Letters - Mr CHOW Yun-fat" (PDF).
  45. ^ "Martial parts - Artist: Yun-Fat, Chow".
  46. ^ "金曲獎／陳小春當頒獎人　用功聽專輯".
  47. ^ "Chan Wai Man's Biography".
  48. ^ "苏有朋出演《原乡人》 将返台抢当客家一哥".
  • The Hakka Dialect. A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon, by Mantaro J. Hashimoto. (Cambridge University Press, 1973).
  • The secret history of the Hakkas: the Chinese revolution as a Hakka enterprise by Mary S. Erbaugh, The China Quarterly, No. 132, December 1992, pp. 937–968.
  • God's Heavenly Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan, by Jonathan D. Spence. (pub. W.W. Norton, reprint) 1997. (ISBN 978-0-393-31556-1)
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