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African immigration to the United States

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African Immigrants (U.S.) United States
Total population
 1,035,253  [1][2][3]
Regions with significant populations
Washington, D.C., New York, Minneapolis, California, Dallas, Atlanta, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Houston
Languages
English (Various Forms of African English, American English), Arabic, Yoruba, Ashanti, Igbo, French, Wolof, Swahili, Hausa, Portuguese, Capeverdean Crioulos, Spanish, others
Religion
Christianity, Islam, Traditional, others
Related ethnic groups
Africans, Sub-Saharan Africans, White Africans of European ancestry

African immigrants are recent immigrants to the United States from Africa. This group is to be distinguished from Afro-Americans, Afro-Caribbeans and Afro-Latinos, who are descended from Black Africans who survived the Atlantic slave trade within the boundaries of the present-day United States, the Caribbean and Latin America. The term African in the scope of this article thus refers to national origins rather than racial affiliation.

African presence in United States Immigration Legislation

Citizenship

In the 1870s the Naturalization Act was extended to allow "aliens, being free white persons and to aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent" to acquire citizenship. Hence immigration from Africa was theoretically permitted while immigration from Asia was not.

Quotas enacted between 1921-1924

Several laws enforcing national origins quotas on American immigration were enacted between 1921 and 1924 and were in effect until they were repealed in 1965. While these laws were aimed at restricting immigration from Asia and the Southern and Eastern Europe, they also impacted African immigrants. This legislation effectively excluded Africans from entering the country.

The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 restricted immigration from a given country to 3% of the number of people from that country living in the U.S. according to the census of 1910. The Immigration Act of 1924 (also known as the Johnson-Reed Act) reduced that to 2 %of the number of people from that country who were already living in the United States in 1890. Under this system, the quota for immigrants from Africa (excluding Egypt) totaled 1,100. (This number was increased to 1,400 under the Immigration act of 1952 or the McCarran-Walter Act.) [4] This is in contrast to a country like Germany whose limit was 51,227.[5]

Immigration Act of 1965

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (also known as the Hart-Cellar Act) repealed the national quotas and subsequently there was a substantial increase in the number of immigrants from “developing” countries, particularly in Africa and Asia. This act also provided a separate category for refugees. The Immigration Act of 1965 has also provided greater opportunity for family re-unification.

20th Century migration patterns

the influx of African immigrants began in latter part of the 20th century and is often referred to as the “fourth great migration.” This trend began after decolonization, as many Africans came to the United States seeking an education, and has risen steadily over time. Originally, these immigrants came with the sole purpose of advancing themselves before returning to their respective countries. However, in recent years there has been an increase in the number of African immigrants interested in gaining permanent residence in the United States. This has led to a severe brain drain on the economies of African countries due to many highly skilled professionals leaving Africa to seek their economic fortunes in the United States and elsewhere.

Factors contributing to migration

One major factor that contributes to migration from Africa to the United States is inadequate planning of labor supply in certain African countries. This has led to an oversupply of specialized workers and a system that is incapable of supporting them.[6][citation needed] Furthermore, education in African countries tends to be modeled after educational systems in developed nations and are not very accommodating of local realities. Subsequently, it has been relatively easy for African immigrants to leave and enter international labor markets. In addition, many Africans come to the United States for advanced training. However, this tends to lead a training that is too specialized to be adequately used in their respective home countries.[7][citation needed] Furthermore, since promotions in Africa are often based on seniority, young professionals eager to jumpstart their careers feel forced to migrate.[7][citation needed]

Demographics


Metros with largest African-born population (2000 Census)
Metropolitan Area African Population % of Black total % of Total Metro Population
Washington, DC, MD-VA-WV 80,281 6.1 1.6
New York, NY 73, 851 3.4 0.8
Atlanta, GA 34,302 2.9 0.8
Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN-WI 27,592 15.4 0.9
Greater Los Angeles Area 25,829 2.7 0.3
Detroit, MI 24,231 2.1 0.6
Houston, TX 22,683 3.1 0.5
Chicago, IL 19,438 2.4 0.7
Dallas, TX 19,134 3.6 0.5
Boston, MA-NH 17,344 9.8 0.7

It is estimated that the current population of African immigrants to the United States is about 881,300.[2] Countries with the most immigrants to the U.S. are Nigeria, Ghana, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Egypt, Somalia, and South Africa.

Additionally, according to the U.S. Census, 55% of immigrants from Africa are male, while 45% are female. Age groups with the largest cohort of African-born immigrants are 25-34, 35-44, and 45-54 with 24.5%, 27.9%, and 15.0% respectively.[2]

Africans typically congregate in urban areas, moving to suburban areas over time. They are also less likely to live in segregated areas.[8] The goals of Africans vary tremendously. While some look to create new lives in the U.S., some plan on using the resources and skills gained to go back and help their countries of origin. Either way, African communities contribute millions to the economies of Africa through remittances.

Immigrants from Africa typically settle in heavily urban areas upon arrival into the U.S. Areas such as Washington, D.C., New York, Columbus, Ohio, Atlanta and Minneapolis have heavy concentrations of African immigrant populations relative to the African American population. Often there are clusters of nationalities within these cities. For instance, Washington, D.C. has large Ghanaian, Eritrean, and Ethiopian communities; Minneapolis has large Somali and Ethiopian populations; and Africans in Houston are predominantly Nigerian. The longer African immigrants live in the United States, the more likely they are to live in suburban areas.

Educational attainment

Africans have the highest educational attainment rates of any immigrant group in the United States. Estimates indicate that a significant percentage of black students at elite universities are African or the children of African immigrants, a notable example of this is Barack Obama.

In an analysis of Census Bureau data by the Journal of Blacks in higher education, African immigrants to the United States were found more likely to be college educated than any other immigrant group. African immigrants to the U.S. are also more highly educated than any other native-born ethnic group including white Americans. Some 48.9 percent of all African immigrants hold a college diploma. This is slightly less than the ., nearly double the rate of native-born white Americans, and nearly four times the rate of native-born African Americans.[9]

In 1997, 19.4 percent of all adult African immigrants in the United States held a graduate degree, compared to 8.1 percent of adult white Americans and 3.8 percent of adult black Americans in the United States, respectively.[10] This information suggests that America has an equally large achievement gap between whites and African/Asian immigrants as it does between white and black Americans.

Of the African-born population in the United States age 25 and older, 87.9% reported having a high school degree or higher,[11] compared with 78.8% of Asian-born immigrants and 76.8% of European-born immigrants, respectively.[12] Immigrants groups in general tend to have higher high school graduation rates than the native-born general American population.

Africans from Nigeria (89.1 percent), Ghana (85.9 percent), Botswana (84.7 percent), and Malawi (83 percent) were the most likely to report having a high school degree or higher. Those born in Cape Verde (44.8 percent) and Mauritania (60.8 percent) were the least likely to report having completed a high school education.[13]

Of the European-born those born in Bulgaria (91.6 percent), Switzerland (90.5 percent), and Ireland (90.4 percent) were the most likely to report having a high school degree or higher. Those born in Portugal (42.9 percent), Italy (53.7 percent), and Greece (59.9 percent) were the least likely to report having completed a high school education.[14]

Of the Asian-born, Mongolia (96.8 percent), Kuwait (94.7 percent), the United Arab Emirates (94.5 percent), and Qatar (94.3 percent) were most likely to report having a high school degree or higher. Those born in Laos (48.1 percent), Cambodia (48.4 percent), and Yemen (49.9 percent) were the least likely to report having completed a high school education.[15]

In Canada, similar trends can be seen where both foreign-born and Canadian-born blacks have graduation rates that exceed those of other Canadians. Similar patterns of educational over-achievement are reached with years of schooling and with data from the 1994 Statistics Canada survey.[16][17] Black immigrants have a higher standard of educational achievement, on average, than the overall Canadian population.[18]

African immigrants to the United States are the largest immigrant group that has the lowest percentage of people not fluent in English.[clarification needed] This is likely because English is one of the most spoken languages in Africa.

Areas U.S. Population All Immigrants African Immigrants Asian Americans Europe, Russia & Canada Latin, South America & Caribbean
Not Fluent in English 0.6% 30.5% 7.6% 23.4% 11.5% 44.0%
Less Than High School 17.5% 39.1% 12.1% 21.2% 23.2% 57.4%
College Degree 23.1% 23.3 43.8% 42.5% 28.9% 9.1%
Advanced Degree 2.6% 4.2 8.2% 6.8% 5.8% 1.9%

SOURCE: 2000 US CENSUS

Health and income levels

American immigrants from predominantly black nations in Africa and South America are generally healthier than black immigrants from predominantly white nations in Europe. A study conducted by Jen’nan Ghazal Read, a sociology professor at the UC Irvine and Michael O. Emerson, a sociology professor at Rice University, closely studied the health of more than 2,900 black immigrants from top regions of emigration: the West Indies, Africa, South America and Europe. Blacks born in Africa and South America have been shown to be healthier than American born Blacks.[19][20]

The study was published in the September issue of Social Forces and is the first to look at the health of black immigrants by their region of origin.[21] The study also showed that the advantage enjoyed by those black emigrants from predominantly non-white nations tended to erode the longer they remained with in the American social framework. The researchers believe this may be the result of being exposed to more stressful life events.

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, income levels among Africans are also typically higher than among Black Americans. This can be attributed to the higher education levels. However, the average salary for Africans is still lower than whites or Asians, even when factoring education, suggesting continued discrimination.

Population

African Immigrants (U.S.) Ancestries in the 2000 US Census[22]
Ancestry 1990 1990% of US population 2000 2000% of US population Percent change from 1990 to 2000
Ethiopian negligible (no data) negligible (no data)

219.6%

Ghanaian 14,900 negligible (no data) 49,944 negligible (no data) 235.2
Nigerian 15,300 negligible (no data) 65,481 negligible (no data) 168.8%
South African 15,690 negligible (no data) 45,569 negligible (no data) 190.4%
Other 136,910 negligible (no data) 292,088 negligible (no data) 113.3%
TOTAL 230,000 0.1% 940,000 0.2% 166.9%

Culture

African immigrants tend to retain their culture once in the United States. Instead of abandoning their various traditions, they find ways to reproduce and reinvent themselves.[23] Because of the extremely diverse nature of African ethnic groups, there is no single African immigrant identity. However, cultural bonds are cultivated through shared ethnic or national affiliations. Some organizations like the Ghanaian group Fantse-Kuo and the Sudanese Association organize by country, region, or ethnic group. Other not for profits like the Malawi Washington Association [3] organize by national identity, and are inclusive of all Malawians. Other groups present traditional culture from a pan-African perspective. Using traditional skills and knowledge, African-born entrepreneurs develop services for immigrants and the community at large. In the Washington area, events such as the annual Ethiopian soccer tournament, institutions such as the AME Church African Liberation Ministry, and "friends" and "sister cities" organizations bring together different communities. The extent to which African immigrants engage in these activities naturally varies according to the population.

Cultural influence

Television

Many local cable channels are now purchasing African programming channels. For example, Channel Africa is now available in some TV networks in the US.

Movies

Nigerian Nollywood films and Ghanaian films can now be found in African stores for rent or purchase in the US.

News

Access to News channels are now gaining popularity. Nigerian Television Authority news, South African Broadcasting Channel, and Ethiopian Television Programming are now available in some areas.

Music videos

African Music can now be seen on certain channles like Mhz.

Restaurants

African restaurants are on the increase in major metropolitan areas. The DC Metro area hosts a number of Ethiopian, Kenyan, South African and West African Restaurants.

Religion

The religious traditions of African immigrants tend to be pluralistic. In other words, they are seen not only as religious institutions, but in many cases also as civic centers. These organizations are also central to persevering ethnic identity among these communities.[24][citation needed] In addition, African immigrant religious communities are also central networks and provide services such as counseling, shelter, employment, financial assistance, health services, real estate tips, etc.

African Christianity

African immigrants practice a diverse array of religions, including Christianity, Islam, and various traditional African religions. However, the largest African immigrant religious group in the United States is made up of Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians. This form of Christianity is a “primarily evangelical, born-again pentecostal sect that emphasizes holiness, fervent prayer, charismatic revival, proximate salvation, speaking in tongues, baptism of the Holy Spirit, faith healing, visions, and divine revelations." [24] These practices are remnants of the influence of traditional worship practices such as spirit possession, divination and ancestor worship.

The most popular church denominations that Africans join include: Brotherhood of the Cross and Star, Celestial Church of Christ, Cherubim and Seraphim, Christ Apostolic Church, The Church of Pentecost, Deeper Life Bible Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Musama Disco, The Presbyterian Church of Ghana, and the Redeemed Christian Church of God.[24][citation needed]

Continental African churches

Africans have also started to create their own congregations. The new trend in African communities includes creating separate churches where Africans can worship as an African congregation. One example is the Bethel Church in Silver Spring, MD that has a Pan-African congregation. It also includes service in English and French. Many African churches are Pan African, but some consist only of nationals from the country of origin. This allows for worship in the languages of the congregation. Ethiopians and Eritreans in particular have their own churches wherever there is a significant Ethiopian/Eritrean population. Their churches are mainly Ethiopian or Eritrean Orthodox and Catholic churches.

Islam

The Muslim tradition of African immigrants is made up of diverse groups and includes Sufis, Mourides from Senegal, as well as mainstream orders and schools from Eastern and Northern Africa. These Muslims tend to interact in both Arabic and their own indigenous languages.[24][citation needed]

Visibility

Nigerian-American soccer player, Oguchi Onyewu

Due to their small population, African immigrants and their descendants are generally under the radar of average Americans. Their achievements and contributions to U.S. culture are relatively small but notable. First and second generation African immigrants can be seen in a wide variety of areas, from academia to athletics to acting. Barack Obama, the first black President of the United States, is a member of the group, as his father is a Harvard University–educated economist and native of Kenya. A few notable African academics in the U.S. include John Ogbu, Philip Emeagwali and Kwame Anthony Appiah. In sports, Hakeem Olajuwon, Oguchi Onyewu, Freddy Adu, and Joseph Addai are prominent, and in entertainment, actor Gbenga Akinnagbe, singer Akon, and rapper Chamillionaire are also well-known.

Notable African immigrants

The following is a list of notable immigrants to the United States with at least one or both parents from Africa. This does not include U.S.-born children of African immigrants unless they spent substantial time living in Africa before settling permanently in the U.S.

Academia and science

Acting

Athletes

Business

Fashion

  • Amsale Aberra, Ethiopia, fashion designer
  • Iman, Somalia, supermodel, actress, fashion and cosmetic designer
  • Liya Kebede, Ethiopia, Supermodel, actress
  • Oluchi Onweagba, Nigeria, Supermodel and Victoria Secret Angel, covergirl for S.I.

Journalism and literature

Music

See also

References

  1. ^ Sub-Saharan African Immigrants - U.S. Census
  2. ^ a b c US Census Bureau - People Born in Africa
  3. ^ The two references differ: the first (2006) says 2.5 million (but roughly 800 thousand foreign born in Africa) presumably including US born children while the second (2000) says 800 thousand.
  4. ^ [Bashi, V. (2004, July 4). Globalizing Anti-Blackness: Transnationalzing Western Immigration law, policy and practice. Retrieved May 1, 2010, from Ethnic and Racial Studies: http://www.arts.yorku.ca/soci/goldring/4390/readings/pdf/bashi_globalized_anti-blackness.pdf]
  5. ^ George Mason University. (1998). Who was Shut Out?: Immigration Quotas, 1925-1927. Retrieved May 1, 2010, from History Matters: http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5078/
  6. ^ Apraku, K. K. (1991). African Emigres in the United States: A Missing Link in Africa's Social and Economic Development. New York: Praeger.
  7. ^ a b (Apraku, 1991)
  8. ^ Segregation Stats
  9. ^ African Immigrants in the United States are the Nation's Most Highly Educated Group. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 26 (Winter, 1999-2000), pp. 60-61doi:10.2307/2999156
  10. ^ African Immigrants in the United States have the highest rate of education. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 26 (Winter, 1999-2000), pp. 60-61doi:10.2307/2999156
  11. ^ "Demographics and Statistics of Immigrants : Asian-Nation :: Asian American History, Demographics, & Issues". Asian-Nation. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  12. ^ Characteristics of the African Born in the United States. Migration Policy Institute. January, 2006
  13. ^ Dixon, D. (2006). Characteristics of the African Born in the United States. Migration Policy Institute. January, 2006
  14. ^ Dixon, D. (2006). Characteristics of the European Born in the United States. Migration Policy Institute. February, 2005
  15. ^ Dixon, D. (2006). Characteristics of the Asian Born in the United States. Migration Policy Institute. April 2006
  16. ^ Guppy, Neil and Scott Davies (1998). Education in Canada: Recent Trends and Future Challenges. Ottawa: Statistics Canada and the Minister of Industry
  17. ^ Boyd, M. (2002). Educational Attainments of Immigrant Offspring: Success or Segmented Assimilation?
  18. ^ The Canadian encyclopedia, 2007
  19. ^ Black immigrants from Africa arrive healthier than those from Europe: From MedicineWorld.Org
  20. ^ Today@UCI: Press Releases:
  21. ^ Project MUSE
  22. ^ Brittingham, Angela. Ancestry 2000:Census Brief. 2004. October 30, 2006. [1]
  23. ^ Olupona, J. K., & Gemignani, R. (Eds.). (2007). African Immigrant Religion in America. New York: New York University Press.
  24. ^ a b c d (Olupona & Gemignani, 2007)
  25. ^ "Emmanuel Akyeampong | HAA Travels - Study Leaders | Harvard Alumni Association | Harvard Alumni Affairs & Development (AA&D)". Alumni.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  26. ^ "Director of Engineering at Siemens Wins Award for Innovation | News | The Hearing Review | Hearing Review Products". The Hearing Review. 2008-06-27. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  27. ^ "Fred McBagonluri". Astronaut.ru. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  28. ^ [2][dead link‍]
  29. ^ "McBagonluri". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  30. ^ "Pashington Obeng". Wellesley.edu. 2007-08-30. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  31. ^ "Kwabena Boahen". Stanford.edu. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  32. ^ "Faculty - Department of Bioengineering - Stanford University School of Medicine and School of Engineering". Bioengineering.stanford.edu. 2008-06-20. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
  33. ^ "Wiki - Eric Osiakwan". Wiki.africasource2.tacticaltech.org. 1999-02-22. Retrieved 2010-11-08.
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