Pluralism (political philosophy)

Pluralism is, in the general sense, the affirmation and acceptance of diversity. The concept is used, often in different ways, in a wide range of issues. In politics, the affirmation of diversity in the interests and beliefs of the citizenry, is one of the most important features of modern democracy. In science, the concept often describes the view that several methods, theories or points of view are legitimate or plausible. This attitude may arguably be a key factor to scientific progress. The term pluralism is also used, in several different senses, in the context of religion and philosophy.

For pluralism as a concept in the philosophy of mind, opposed to monism and dualism see Pluralism (philosophy of mind)

For pluralism in ethical theory, see value-pluralism

For pluralism in regard to the possibility of extraterrestrial life, see cosmic pluralism

For pluralism in the sense of holding multiple ecclesiastical posts, see benefice

For pluralism as it relates to the diversity of religions, see religious pluralism

Pluralism in politics

In democratic politics, pluralism is a guiding principle which permits the peaceful coexistence of different interests, convictions and lifestyles. Unlike totalitarianism or particularism, pluralism acknowledges the diversity of interests and considers it legitimate for members of society to work for their realisation, to represent them and to articulate them in a process of conflict and dialogue. In political philosophy, those who embrace pluralism are often described as liberals, while those who take up a more critical attitude towards the diversity of modern societies are often called communitarians.

Pluralism and the common good

Pluralism is connected with the hope that this process of conflict and dialogue will lead to a definition and subsequent realization of the common good that is best for all members of society. This implies that in a pluralistic framework, the common good is not given a priori. Instead, the scope and content of the common good can only be found out in and after the process of negotiation (a posteriori).

Consequently, the common good does not, according to pluralists, coincide with the position of any one cohesive group or organization.

Still, one group may eventually manage to establish its own view as the generally accepted view, but only as the result of the negotiation process within the pluralistic framework. This implies that, as a general rule, the "operator" of a truly pluralistic framework, i.e. the state in a pluralistic society, must not be biased: it may not take sides with any one group, give undue privileges to one group and discriminate against another one.

Proponents of pluralism argue that this negotiation process is the best way to achieve the common good: Since everyone can participate in power and decision-making (and can claim part of the ownership of the results of exercising power) there can also be widespread participation and a greater feeling of commitment from society members, and therefore better outcomes. By contrast, an authoritarian or oligarchic society, where power is concentrated and decisions are made by few members, forestalls this possibilty.

Proponents in contemporary political philosophy of such a view include Isaiah Berlin, Stuart Hampshire and William Galston. Political pluralism was a also a strong current in the formation of modern social democracy, with theorists such as Harold Laski and G. D. H. Cole, as well as other leading members of the British Fabian Society.

However others, such as Charles Blattberg, have argued that negotiation can at best compromise rather than realise the common good. Doing the latter is said to require engaging in "conversation" instead, room for which is made within what Blattberg calls a 'patriotic', as distinct from pluralist, politics.

Conditions for pluralism

For pluralism to function and to be successful in defining the common good, all groups have to agree to a minimal consensus regarding shared values, which tie the different groups to society, and shared rules for conflict resolution between the groups:

The most important value is that of mutual respect and tolerance, so that different groups can coexist and interact without anyone being forced to assimilate to anyone else's position in conflicts that will naturally arise out of diverging interests and positions. These conflicts can only be resolved durably by dialogue which leads to compromise and to mutual understanding.

As to the shared rules, the most important ones are non-violence and other terms of negotiations and arbitration.

Pluralism and Subsidiarity

However, the necessary consensus on rules and values should not unnecessarily limit different groups and individuals within society in their value decisions. According to the principle of subsidiarity, everything that need not be regulated within the general framework should be left to decide for subordinate groups and, in turn, to individuals so as to guarantee them a maximum amount of freedom.

In ultimate consequence, pluralism thus also implies the right for individuals to determine values and truths for themselves instead of being forced to follow the whole of society or, indeed, their own group.

Pluralism in the scientific community

It can be argued that the pluralistic nature of the scientific process is a major factor in the rapid growth of knowledge. In turn, an increase in knowledge arguably leads to increased human welfare due to, for example, greater productivity, economic growth and better medical technology.

Pluralism in philosophy

Pluralism in philosophy is another name for the marketplace of ideas. Theoretically, many different schools of thought will influence each other, which may eventually lead to a more advanced and logical way of thinking.

See also

• Cultural pluralism
• Religious pluralism
• Pluralism (philosophy of mind)
• Value-pluralism
• Polyarchy
• List of democracy and elections-related topics
• Liberal democracy
• Particularism
• Progressive Christianity

References

In epistemology and ontology:

• A Pluralistic Universe, James, William (1909).

In political philosophy and ethics:

• The Open Society and its Enemies, Popper, Karl (1945).
• The Crooked Timber of Humanity, Berlin, Isaiah (1990).
• Political Liberalism, Rawls, John (1993).
• From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics, Blattberg, Charles (2000).
• Liberty, Berlin, Isaiah (2002).
• Liberal Pluralism, Galston, William (2002).
• The Practice of Liberal Pluralism, Galston, William (2005).

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