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Libyan civil war (2011)

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2011 Libyan uprising
Part of 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests

Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces
Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces

Ongoing fighting/Unclear situation
Date15 February 2011 (2011-02-15) – ongoing
Location
Libya
Status Ongoing
Belligerents

Libya Anti-Gaddafi forces

Libya Government of Muammar Gaddafi

  • Part of the Libyan Armed Forces[2] remaining loyal to Gaddafi
  • Part of the Libyan police remaining loyal to Gaddafi
  • Part of Libyan populace remaining loyal to Gaddafi
  • Foreign mercenaries
Strength

Unknown (numbers disputed)

5,000 volunteers (opposition claim)[3]

50,000+ (before defections, now disputed)[4]

10,000-12,000 Loyalist troops (Al Jazeera estimate)[5]
Casualties and losses
1,100+ protesters killed,
152 rebel soldiers killed[6][7][8][9]		 111 soldiers killed (by Feb. 20)[10]
10 soldiers killed (on the day of Feb. 28)[11]
50 mercenaries killed (by Feb. 19)[12]
2 policemen killed (by Feb. 18)[13]
6,000 dead[14][15]
5,000+ injured[16]

The 2011 Libyan uprising began as a series of protests and confrontations occurring in the North African state of Libya against Muammar Gaddafi's 42-year rule. The protests began on 15 February 2011 and have since become a widespread uprising that continues to the present. Inspiration for the unrest is attributed to the uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt, connecting it with the wider 2010–11 Middle East and North Africa protests.[17] On 22 February, The Economist described the events as an "uprising that is trying to reclaim Libya from the world's longest-ruling autocrat."[18]

Many in Gaddafi's own security forces have refused to kill civilians and significant portions have sided with the protesters. Gaddafi has hired large numbers of foreign mercenaries from a number of African countries to attack protesters.[19] By the end of February it seemed that Gaddafi had lost control of most of his country.[20][21] The Libyan opposition has formed a National Transitional Council and free press has begun to operate in Cyrenaica.[22] Social media has played an important role in organizing the opposition.[23]

Gaddafi remains in control of Tripoli, Sirt,[24] Zliten[25] and Sabha.[26] Gaddafi controls the well-armed Khamis Brigade and a large number of mercenaries. Some of Gaddafi's officials have sided with the protesters and requested international community to help bring end to massacres of civilians, many of whom are non-combatants.

Most nations have strongly condemned Gaddafi's use of force against civilians.[27] The United States has imposed sanctions on Gaddafi. The United Nations Security Council has passed a resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and 10 members of his inner circle. The resolution also imposed a travel ban and referred Libya to the International Criminal Court for investigation.[28] Options for outside intervention have been discussed by European and US governments and rebel leaders, including a possible no-fly zone and humanitarian aid.[29] However a few state leaders in Latin America have expressed support for Gaddafi's government[27] for which they were criticized by other world leaders.[30][31][32][33] The European Union's arms trafficking watchdog has stated that during the crisis Gaddafi has received military shipments from Belarus.[34][35]

Background

History

Main article: Libya under Gaddafi

Muammar Gaddafi has ruled Libya as Brotherly Leader and Guide of The Revolution since overthrowing the monarchy in 1969.[36] Following the retirement of Fidel Castro in 2008 and the death of Omar Bongo in 2009, Gaddafi is the world's extant longest-ruling non-royal head of state.[37] WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables has revealed US diplomats there even speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering".[38] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he has skillfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his own children, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.[38]

A significant portion of the population of Libya consists of youths aged 15 or under.

Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP.[39] Governments with "resource curse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently are less willing to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, such governments can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters.[40] The government of Libya can utilize these techniques by using the national oil resources.[41] Libya's oil wealth was spread over a relatively small population of six million,[42] with 21% general unemployment, the highest in the region, according to the latest census figures.[43]

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia.[44] Indeed, Libyan citizens are considered to be well educated and to have a high standard of living.[45] Its corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboring countries who faced uprising before Libya.[46] This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).[44]

Repressive system

Libya is the most censored country in the Middle East and North Africa, according to the Freedom of the Press Index.[47]

Gaddafi's Revolutionary committees resemble similar systems in communist countries and reportedly 10 to 20 percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea. The surveillance takes place in government, in factories, and in the education sector.[48]

Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three years of prison. In any case Gaddafi removed foreign languages from school curriculum. One protester in 2011 described the situation as: "None of us can speak English or French. He kept us ignorant and blindfolded".[49]

Gaddafi has paid for murders of his critics around the world.[48][50] As of 2004, Libya still provides bounties for critics, including 1 million dollars for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist.[51]

The regime has often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast on state television channels.[48][52]

Early developments

Abu Salim Prison is a high security prison in Tripoli which human rights activists and other observers often describe as "notorious".[53][54][55] Amnesty International has called for an independent inquiry into deaths that occurred there in 1996,[56] an incident which Amnesty International and other news media refer to as the Abu Salim prison massacre.[57] Human Rights Watch believes that 1,270 prisoners were killed,[58][59] and calls it a "site of egregious human rights violations."[59]

On 24 January 2010, Libya blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in Abu Salim prison in 1996, and videos of family members of Gaddafi at parties. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch.[60]

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building.[61][62] By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US $24 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.

The former Libyan flag used by the Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions of it, have been used by many protesters as an opposition flag.[63][64][65]

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.[66]

In early February, Gaddafi had met with "political activists, journalists, and media figures" and "warned" them that they would be "held responsible" if they participated "in any way in disturbing the peace or creating chaos in Libya".[67]

Timeline of events

Main article: Timeline of 2011 Libyan uprising

15–21 February

Opposition protests outside the White House, Washington, D.C. on 19 February

In the evening of 15 February approximately 200 people began demonstrating in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi following the arrest of human rights activist Fathi Terbil.[68] They were joined by others later who totaled between 500 to 600 protesters. The protest was broken up violently by police, causing as many as 40 injuries among the protesters.[69] (The main military encampment in Benghazi, al-Katiba, was battled over for three days , the turning point coming when one protestor packed his car with explosives and rammed it into the walls of the base. A Libyan army officer who subsequently surrendered to the rebels has told of the killing of soldiers who had refused to open fire on those marching against the regime, by Gaddafi loyalists, before they were forced to flee.) [70] BBC reported on February 23rd that during the preceding week (February 13-19) these battles between protests and government loyalists led to Benghazi falling into opposition hands as well as resulted in "300 protesters and 120 members of the government forces [being] killed"[71] Al Jazeera reported that a decisive moment was the Sunday, February 19th defection to the protesters' side of longtime Gaddafi regime loyalist and special forces commander Abdel Fattah Younes, who had troops from his unit attack Katiba with machine guns and truck-mounted anti-aircraft guns, with two tanks under Younes's command soon being added to the opposition's side.[72] Similar protests and conflicts with police continued throughout the country through 19 February.[73][74]

The Libyan government began hiring African mercenaries, mostly from Chad, to support its own forces. It was reported that “They were paid for 5,000 (Dinars) and the latest model cars just to get rid of demonstrators,” according to inside sources.[75] The conflict continued to escalate; on 19 February witnesses in Libya reported helicopters firing into crowds of anti-government protesters.[76] On 20 February the United States Department of State, through the American Embassy, issued a travel warning to US citizens due to the continuing unrest in the country.[77] On 21 February in Benghazi, protesters took control of the streets, and looted weapons from the main security headquarters. Demonstrators also lowered the Libyan flag from above the main courthouse and replaced it with the flag of the country's old monarchy.[78] Libyan Air Force warplanes and attack helicopters launched airstrikes on protesters, reportedly targeting a funeral procession and a group of protesters trying to reach a military base.[78][79] Two senior mutineering air force pilots flew their Dassault Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta and requested political asylum after defying orders to bomb protesters.[80]

22–28 February

A girl in Benghazi holding a paper: "Tribes of Libya are one group" on February 23
Demonstrators inside al Fadeel battalion compound, al Berka, Benghazi
A government revolutionary committee office after it was torched by demonstrators, in Benghazi's downtown.

On February 22nd, Gaddafi made a brief appearance on state television[81] in which he said he had been speaking to the youth in Green Square. He also said: [[d:Special:EntityPage/QI AM IN TRIPOLI AND NOT IN VENEZUELA.[82] DO NOT BELIEVE THE (NEWS) CHANNELS BELONGING TO STRAY DOGS.| (QI AM IN TRIPOLI AND NOT IN VENEZUELA.[82] DO NOT BELIEVE THE (NEWS) CHANNELS BELONGING TO STRAY DOGS.)]][83] Eyewitnesses reported that thousands of African mercenaries were flown into Tripoli to put down the uprising.[84] In a second speech within 24 hours, believed by commentators to be made from his family compound in the Bab al-Azizia military barracks in southern Tripoli,[85] Gaddafi blamed foreign powers and hallucinogens being forced on the protesters for the unrest.[86] Gaddafi vowed to fight his opponents (QUNTIL THE LAST DROP OF HIS BLOOD HAD BEEN SPILT) rather than step down, describing anti-regime protesters as (QRATS) and (QMERCENARIES) working for foreign nations and corporate agendas. By the nighttime, the Arab League suspended the Libyan delegation from meetings until the Libyan people were safe.[87]

By the end of the day on 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime. Former justice minister Mustafa Abud Al-Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing,[88] resignations and "defections" of close allies,[89][90] the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration"[91] and other cities including Tobruk and Misurata reportedly falling[92] with some believing that government had retained control of "just a few pockets".[90]

Around midnight, some reports began to emerge describing the situation as civil war[93][94] or revolution,[95] with Gaddafi trying to ensure control over the capital and his political base Tripoli.[96]

On 24 February protesters assumed complete control of Tobruk, where soldiers and residents celebrated by waving the former Libyan flag used between 1951 and 1969, firing guns into the air and honking horns. Army units in Tobruk and throughout eastern Libya sided with protesters, with some soldiers and officers participating in demonstrations. Commanders pledged to defend the "liberated territory" with their lives after Gaddafi threatened to take it back by force. Two airmen bailed out of their jet, which crashed into the desert, after defying orders to bomb Tobruk. In the collapse of central authority, residents formed public defence committees for security, and opened welfare organizations to ensure that residents had enough to eat. At newly established security checkpoints, demonstrators handed out bottled water and juice to passing motorists.[97]

On 25 February Gaddafi’s youngest son, Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi, was claimed to have joined the protesters in Benghazi and to comment that Muammar Gaddafi would probably commit suicide or flee to Latin America if the protests succeeded.[98] For the first time in days, thousands took to the streets of Tripoli to protest, with protester and civilian death tolls rising.[99] Colonel Gaddafi appeared at 18h55 (local time) in Green Square in Tripoli, with a microphone shouting to the crowd of Gaddafi loyalists[100] "Sing, dance and be ready, we will fight those who are against us."[101]

On 26 February, there were unconfirmed reports that helicopter-borne mercenaries fighting for Gaddafi fired on protesters attending a funeral in the western city of Misrata.[102] On the same day, former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil led the creation of an interim government claiming control of the country, even though it can only exert control of cooperative areas of Libya in rebellion against Gaddafi.[103] Although it is unclear as to the extent of the interim government's recognition and authority both within and outside Libya, the US Government took the opportunity to call publicly for Gaddafi to step down, marking an escalation of its rhetoric against his regime.[104]

On 27 February, Al Jazeera and Reuters reported that Ali Suleiman Aujali, Libya's ambassador to the United States, had declared his support for the interim government in Benghazi.[105] Al Zawiyah, just 30 miles (48 km) from Tripoli, was taken by the protesters. Britain revoked the diplomatic immunity of Gaddafi after the UN agreed to a range of sanctions against Libya amid the growing unrest. Gaddafi gave an interview to a Serbian TV station, RTV Pink, calling the Security Council resolution "invalid in accordance with the United Nations Charter" and that the resolution was based on the news reports rather than on actual state in Libya. He vowed to stay in Libya blaming the "foreigners and Al-Qaeda" for the unrest, saying that the protests began when "the gangs of drugged young men attacked regular army forces".[106][107] Late on 27 February, the Royal Navy's HMS Cumberland docked at Benghazi in the east to pick up British citizens still stranded in the port city. The same day Gaddafi's trusted nurse Galyna Kolotnytska arrived back in Ukraine.[108]

On 28 February, Gaddafi gave an interview in which he claimed there was no unrest in Libya. (QALL MY PEOPLE LOVE ME,) Gaddafi told journalists from ABC News, the BBC and Britain's Sunday Times. He also described the pressure from foreign leaders as (QBETRAYAL) and laughed at suggestions that he should leave the country. Susan Rice, the US ambassador to the United Nations, said the interview indicated Gaddafi is (QDELUSIONAL) and (QUNFIT) to lead Libya.[109] The New York Times reported US military assets in the Mediterranean and Red Seas were being repositioned to facilitate possible military intervention in Libya, with top US State Department officials suggesting a no-fly zone could be imposed to prevent Gaddafi from flying in mercenaries or using aircraft to attack opposition forces or civilians.[110] British Prime Minister David Cameron suggested the UK would seek international cooperation to enforce a no-fly zone, which the Italian government indicated it may offer its military bases to abet.[111] Though the no-fly zone proposal attracted the support of the Australian government, the foreign ministers of Italy and France suggested the option required further study[112] and their Canadian counterpart said he was sceptical such a plan would be enacted.[113] In Libya itself, Gaddafi appointed foreign intelligence chief Bouzaid Dordah to act as an envoy to the National Libyan Council in Benghazi, although officials in Tripoli suggested Gaddafi and Dordah intend for negotiations to center on the opposition standing down. (QIF ALL ATTEMPTS AND EFFORTS FOR DIALOGUE… ARE EXHAUSTED, A VERY WELL GUIDED FORCE WILL BE USED IN ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL RULES,) warned Deputy Foreign Minister Khaled Kaim.[114] Gaddafi's forces also attacked rebels in Misurata and Zawiyah and reportedly commenced an airstrike against a defected military base near Ajdabiya. Reports indicated the attacks on Misurata and Zawiyah were repulsed with minimal anti-Gaddafi casualties.[115]

1–3 March

On 1 March, Australian Minister for Defence Stephen Smith confirmed that his government was considering military options against Gaddafi, saying that international intervention to enforce a no-fly zone was probable. Smith asserted that "no one is expecting" Gaddafi to leave power voluntarily.[116] Al Jazeera reported that Misurata was once again under attack, this time from a combined armor and air assault. According to a witness quoted by the Qatar-based news agency, Gaddafi's forces are using heavy weapons against protesters and rebels in the city, while the anti-Gaddafi forces are fighting back with small arms.[117] Abdul Fatah Younis, Gaddafi's former interior minister and the leader of a growing rebel force, told Al Jazeera that if Gaddafi could not be dislodged from Tripoli, he would welcome foreign intervention in the form of targeted airstrikes, though he said a land invasion was unwanted and offered the use of Libyan military airbases only in case of emergency to foreign aircraft.[118] Al Jazeera also reported that anti-Gaddafi forces had repulsed a six-hour offensive by government forces attempting to seize Zawiya, securing the city for the opposition.[117] Other members of the council demanded that the United Nations call for airstrikes on major military assets of the regime. One senior official told The New York Times, (QIF HE FALLS WITH NO INTERVENTION, I’D BE HAPPY, BUT IF HE’S GOING TO COMMIT A MASSACRE, MY PRIORITY IS TO SAVE MY PEOPLE.)[119]

Main article: Battle of Brega

On 2 March, Al Jazeera reported that rebels based in eastern Libya were preparing to march on Tripoli with over 5,000 volunteers, who have been trained to use weapons in recent days by defected and retired soldiers and officers. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps increased their offshore presence, intending to place more pressure on Gaddafi to step down.[120] The United Nations expressed concern over the border situation with Tunisia, where Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon said thousands attempting to flee the unrest in Libya combined with a lack of resources for handling the mass emigration threatened to trigger a humanitarian crisis.[121] At about 9 AM Libyan time, four large explosions went off in close succession in central Tripoli. According to reports from international media, security forces and Gaddafi supporters prevented journalists and onlookers from approaching after the blasts, which they described as originating from an oil tanker truck.[122][123] Around midday, Arab media reported that forces loyal to Gaddafi seized the town of Marsa El Brega in Cyrenaica, killing 14, and were launching a counterattack against anti-Gaddafi forces in eastern Libya.[124] Almost as soon, reports broke on Twitter that the opposition had fought back against two jets bombing positions near Ajdabiya and a column of at least 100 vehicles transporting pro-Gaddafi troops,[125][126] reportedly shooting down one warplane,[127] and the opposition retook control of Brega.[128] During a lengthy televised speech by Gaddafi in which he insisted no attacks had been launched against rebels, whom he again claimed were al Qaeda operatives, reports came in of another airstrike against rebel positions near Brega, where Al Jazeera reported 250–300 pro-Gaddafi fighters were routed by revolutionary forces.[129][130] At least 14 people were killed in the Battle of Brega.[131]

The Telegraph reported that US officials, speaking on condition of anonymity, claimed British SAS forces would likely be mobilized to seize mustard gas and sarin stockpiled by Gaddafi's forces in the Libyan desert.[132] Gaddafi delivered a nearly three-hour speech to mark the 34th anniversary of the establishment of the jamahiriya in which he again blamed al Qaeda for unrest. He also insisted there were no demonstrations in Libya and claimed he had ordered a full retreat from towns attacked by al Qaeda, despite saying he held no power in the Libyan government and describing the jamahiriya as a [[d:Special:EntityPage/QDEMOCRACY… WITHOUT ELECTIONS… [CONTROLLED BY] …THE AUTHORITY OF THE PEOPLE| (QDEMOCRACY… WITHOUT ELECTIONS… [CONTROLLED BY] …THE AUTHORITY OF THE PEOPLE)]]. By the later part of the day, the news agency afrol reported that local protesters in the southwestern oasis town of Ghadames, on the border with Tunisia and Algeria, apparently took control of the settlement, though some reports suggested parts of the town and its environs are being disputed by pro-Gaddafi elements. [133] At a summit in Cairo, the Arab League rejected direct military intervention as an option in Libya, but suggested it could establish a no-fly zone over the country, possibly in conjunction with the African Union.[134]

On 3 March, an opposition website posted a "distress call" purportedly from "the people of Brega" warning that mercenaries had reinforced forces loyal to Gaddafi at Hrawah, midway between Ras Lanuf and Brega, and calling for immediate reinforcements in case Gaddafi's fighters attacked Brega again.[135] The government of the Netherlands said three Dutch marines were captured by pro-Gaddafi forces after landing near Sirte as part of a rescue operation to evacuate Dutch workers trapped in the country. Dutch and Libyan authorities are reportedly in negotiations over the marines' fate, with the Netherlands seeking the immediate release of the captured servicemen into Dutch custody. At least two of the workers the marines were attempting to evacuate have left the country, The Guardian reported.[136] In the eastern Mediterranean, US warships passed through the Suez Canal on their way to waters off Libya.[137] Reports also circulated indicating that a proposal advanced by Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez for international mediators led by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government was accepted in principle by Gaddafi, a friend and ally of the Venezuelan leader. The proposal is "under consideration" by the Arab League, according to Chairman Amr Moussa.[138] Forces loyal to Gaddafi again marched on opposition positions in coastal Cyrenaica, hitting Brega and Ajdabiya again from the air while advancing overland, although the strength and aggressiveness of the loyalist ground forces is unclear.[139][140]

Anti-Gaddafi movement's situation

In the opposition controlled area, several new media outlets have emerged. An opposition-controlled newspaper called Libya has appeared in Benghazi, as well as opposition-controlled radio stations.[141]

The National Libyan Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي) was a body established by opposition forces on February 27 in an effort to consolidate the anti-Gaddafi forces.[142] The main objectives of the group do not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world.[143]

Libyans now have access to many abandoned torture chambers and Al Jazeera has documented devices that have been used against anti-Gaddafi activists before.[144]

Gaddafi's situation

Arms traffic

Russia has billions of dollars worth of arms deals with Gaddafi and it was also late to condemn the massacres of civilians.[145] An ideological leader of the Kremlin's youth organization Nashi and a Russian government member has praised how Gaddafi has killed "provocateurs".[146]

The EU's arms trafficking watchdog organization has observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus. It has been concluded that Belarus is currently arming Gaddafi. Some of the planes have visited a military base in Baranovichi, Belarus, which is a dedicated military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment. Gaddafi's sons have attended Belarusian-Russian military exercises before.[34][35]

Mercenary activity

Numerous eyewitnesses and identity documents of captured soldiers show that Gaddafi is employing foreign nationalities to attack Libyan civilians. None of the governments of these African mercenaries support Libya, and Chad has traditionally been at odds with Libya over the Aozou Strip.

"French-speaking" fighters apparently come from neighbouring African countries such as Chad and Niger. However, some have urged caution, saying that Libya has a significant black population that could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actually serving in the regular army.[147] Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship.[147]

On 18 February, it was alleged that "armed forces with military members from Chad" were operating in Benghazi, having been "paid for 5,000 (Dinars) and the latest car models just to get rid of demonstrators."[148] Twelve people were killed on the Giuliana Bridge in Benghazi when forces opened fire.[148]

On 19 February, several Chadian mercenaries were captured in eastern Libya.[149]

On 21 February a lawyer working in Benghazi said that a local ‘security committee’ formed by native civilians on the 21st took control of the city had arrested 36 “mercenaries” from Chad, Niger and Sudan who were hired by Gaddafi’s body guards or ‘Praetorian Guard’ to fight in the city.[150]

On 22 February, there were reports of mercenaries from Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Niger, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco, and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe, fighting in Al Bayda. A 21-year-old university student called Saddam claimed mercenaries had killed 150 people in the previous two days in the city of Al Bayda.[151] Various other accusations told of Chadians operating in Southern Libya, Benghazi and Tripoli.[152] Mercenaries from Chad, Mali and Niger were reportedly working in the rest of eastern Libya on suppressing the protests in Libya.[153]

On 23 February, there was a report that Gaddafi had deployed French-speaking mercenaries from nearby countries such as Mali, Niger and Chad.[153] Hired killers from Chad and Niger were reported to be in Bengazi and other eastern cities[2] on the 23rd.

On 24 February, the Aruba School in the coastal town of Shehat became the prison for almost 200 suspected pro-Gaddafi mercenaries from countries such as Niger and Chad.[154] They were reported to be part of Libya's "Khamees' battalion", the well-equipped 32nd brigade led by Khamis Gaddafi.[154] It was confirmed on the 24th by Col Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi in an interview with the Al Jazeera that NigerianMalian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping the besieged Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi fight off an uprising.[155] He said that the mercenaries were jobless ex-soldiers and officers who were enticed to Libya's civil war by the offer of money.[156]

On 25 February, speculation that members of the Zimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya to help prop up cornered Colonel Muammar Gaddafi grew as Zimbabwe’s Defence Minister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a straight answer to a question posed in Parliament about it.[157] On the same day, the Foreign Ministry of Chad denied allegations that mercenaries were fighting for Gaddafi, although he admitted it was possible that individuals had joined such groups.[158]

The Serbian Ministry of Defence denied rumors that of any of its active or retired personnel participating in the events in Libya as "total stupidity".[159]

Many eyewitnesses have documented how mercenaries have taken over ambulances to kill injured protesters.[160][161][162]

Gaddafi's supporters

Gaddafi's supporters have three main motives in general. Some cities, such as Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte have been lavishly developed due to family relations and hence are loyal to the dictator. [163] Control over Tripoli comes in large part from several elite security brigades, who were lavished with arms and training while the regular army was somewhat neglected in order to guard against potential coups. [164] Southwestern Libya contains a large population of sub-Saharan Africans, primarily Chadian refugees who Gaddafi settled there in the 1970s-1980s.[165] Gaddafi has also been recruiting soldiers from among the Tuareg tribe in southwestern Libya, although the tribe as a whole have announced their support[166] for the protesters.

Internationally, several Latin American nations have released statements of supports for Gaddafi due to shared social revolutionary backgrounds and alliances.[167][168] Gaddafi has also been hiring mercenaries from neighboring African states ; he had spent decades cultivating influence to create a pan-African union.[169][170] He had influence with rebel groups in neighboring Chad, where many of his mercenaries reportedly come from. However, it appears that many of the mercenaries were untrained peasants who were offered jobs, only to be flown into a war zone and asked to fight or else be killed. [171]

Censorship

International journalists were banned[172][173] by the Libyan authorities[174] from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government, and Lebanese officials have complained that Libya jammed the broadcasts of Lebanese television reporting on the crackdown.[175] Additionally, reports suggest that the Internet is widely disrupted.[176]

Gaddafi on 13 February warned against the use of Facebook, and security organisations arrested several prominent internet activists and bloggers.[177][178][179] The novelist Idris al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests in Benghazi on 15 February.[180] Rolling Internet censorship[181] occurred mostly but not entirely[182] at night; all Internet traffic was abruptly lost on February 18.[181][183] Furthermore, some satellite phones were jammed.[184] Former aides have purportedly advised Gaddafi to resign via Twitter.[185]

Deaths and injuries

Main article: Casualties of the 2011 Libyan uprising

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. However, some conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000. Still, the International Federation for Human Rights have stated that the death toll could be as high as 3,000 by March 2. At the same time the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died.[15] Among the dead, there have also been hundreds of members of both the rebel and government military forces.

The numbers of injured have ranged from around 4,000[16] to 5,000.

Other humanitarian concerns

Medical supplies, fuel and food are running dangerously low in the country.[186]

On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross has launched an emergency appeal for $6.4 million USD to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in the country.[187]

The ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.[188]

Evacuations

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people have been crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily. Among those escaping the violence are foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians, and Turks, as well as Libyans.[189] During the uprising many countries evacuated their citizens.[190][191][192] A number of international oil companies have decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Shell, Suncor, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees include Siemens and Russian Railways.[193][194]

Western operations

On 25 February 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli and two day wait for the seas to calm down.[195]

The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and naval vessels to assist in the evacuation of their citizens and other nationals.[196][197][198]

Ireland dispatched two Irish Air Corps planes to evacuate Irish citizens from Libya, but these returned on 24 February without passengers after Libyan security officials prevented them from evacuating passengers. The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya.[199] An Irish Air Corps Learjet later flew seven Irish evacuees from Malta to Casement Aerodrome.[200]

On the evening of 25 February, the United Kingdom and Germany launched a joint evacuation operation, involving two Royal Air Force transport planes with British Special Forces on board and two Luftwaffe Transall C-160 transport planes, with elite Fallschirmjägers on board. The planes evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers from the airport at Nafurah to Crete.[201][202][203]

On 27 February two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft again with British Special Forces evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi,[204][205] one of which was shot at and suffered some damage, but no one was injured.[206]

On the afternoon of 27 February a Lynx helicopter from the Dutch navy attempted to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from the coastal city of Sirt. The attempt failed and the helicopter and its crew of three was apprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi, while the two civilians were handed over to the Dutch embassy in Tripoli.[207]

On the 28th of February evacuations from Libya continued. Two vessels docked in Valletta Waterfront, Floriana, Malta bringing 3,200 workers, mostly Chinese. Till 1st March, there were 12,000 people evacuated from Libya to Malta, 3,000 of them by airplane to Luqa airport and the rest by ferries to Floriana, Valletta, Marsa and Pietà, Malta.[208][209]

On Wednesday March 2, 2011, the Canadian Forces HMCS Charlottetown has left its home port of Halifax to be a part of a humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an American carrier battle group led by the nuclear-powered USS Enterprise. Their destination is to reach Libya to help restore peace, evacuate Canadian citizens in Libya and provide humanitarian relief.[210]

Asian operations

China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with 30,000 Chinese nationals being evacuated. [211] A total of 35,860 Chinese citizens had been evacuated from Libya as of 11:10 p.m. March 2nd, Beijing Time. This means all Chinese who desired to go back and whose whereabouts were known by the foreign ministry of China have been evacuated from Libya. Among those who had been been taken out of Libya, 20,745 returned to their homeland. To speed up the pulling-out, China also sent its navy and air force to be a part of this unprecedented evacuation effort. On February 25th, the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy guided missile frigate Xuzhou was ordered to be the guardship to Chinese evacuation efforts, after being detached from anti-piracy operations off the Somali coast. The Chinese warship has already passed the Suez Canal and is en route to the Libyan coast as of March 2nd. Aside from its own nationals, China also managed to evacuate 2,100 foreign citizens from 12 different countries. Throughout the evacuation, countries like Greece, Malta, Egypt, Tunisia, Turkey and Jordan have kindly offered their help in either providing transportation or facilitating temporary shelter. The Chinese government continues to send more charter planes to these countries and have increased the number of charter flights from these countries to 15 flights a day. [212]

On March 1st, the South Korean Navy ship Choi Young arrives of the coast of Tripoli to evacuate South Korean citizens from Libya.[213]

The Indian population in Libya is estimated to be 18,000. The Indian government set up 3 special flights daily to evacuate its citizens. These operations are expected to continue until March 12th.[214][215]

Domestic responses

Further information: List of officials who protested or resigned during the 2011 Libyan protests
A map showing the ethnic and part of the tribal composition of Libya

Several officials resigned from their positions after 20 February in large part due to protests against the army's "excessive use of force," including justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil as well as Interior Minister and Major General, Abdul Fatah Younis[216] whereas Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem was reported to have fled the country.[175] Citing "grave violations of human rights", Gaddafi's cousin and close aid, Ahmad Qadhaf al-Dam, announced his defection from the government when he arrived in Egypt on 24 February.[217]

Several members of the diplomatic corps also resigned. Amongst these were the ambassadors to the Arab League,[218] Bangladesh, the People's Republic of China,[219] the European Union and Belgium,[220] India,[221] Indonesia,[175] Nigeria, Sweden and the United States. The deputy ambassador to the United Nations Ibrahim Omar Al Dabashi did not resign but distanced himself from the Libyan government's actions.[222][223] The ambassador to the United States Ali Aujali together with the embassy staff also distanced himself from the government, "condemned" the violence and urged the international community "to stop the killings."[175] The ambassador to the United Kingdom denied reports that he had resigned.[175]

Two Libyan Air Force pilots and a naval vessel fled to Malta, reportedly claiming to have refused orders to bomb protesters in Benghazi.[224][225]

Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.[175][226] The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have announced their support of the protesters.[20][227] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.[228]

Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned from his post "to express dismay against violence".[20]

On 28 February, Muammar Gaddafi has reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligence service to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of the country.[229]

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris's photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty has traditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.[230]

Claimant Muhammad as-Senussi sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect."[231] Muhammad said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence.[232] On 24 February 2011 Muhammad gave an interview to Al Jazeera English where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre".[233] Muhammad has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". Questioned about what shape a new government could take, and whether the 1951 royal constitution could be revived Muhammad said that such questions are "premature and are issues that are to be decided by the Libyan people," adding that for now the priority is to stop the "killing of innocent people." On whether he desires to return to Libya he says "The Senussi family considers itself as in the service of the Libyan people."[234] When asked about reestablishing the monarchy he has stated "he is a servant to Libyan people and they decide what they want".[235] The White House says it will not specify which indivuals and groups its working and reaching out with when asked if the White House supports Muhammad as-Senussi call for internation support.[236] In an interview with Asharq Al-Awsat he states that it is to early to answer if the monarchy in Libya could be restored and if he will be active in Libyan poltics. He also says the main objective is to end the violence on the streets in Libya.[237]

In an interview with Adnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne, announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated.[238] On 21 February 2011 Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.[239] On 24 February his brother Hashem called on Gaddafi “to have mercy” on the demonstrators, just as he did with members of the former Royal Family in 1969 when he allowed them to leave the country unharmed after the coup that overthrew the monarchy.[240]

International reactions

Main article: International reactions to the 2011 Libyan uprising

Most states and supranational bodies have condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. On the other hand, Daniel Ortega has expressed support for Gaddafi.[241] [242][243] On 19 February, Silvio Berlusconi said he did not want to "disturb" Gaddafi,[244] but two days later he called the attacks on protesters "unacceptable".[245]

Many states issued either travel advisories or attempted evacuations. Some evacuations were successful in either going to Malta or via land borders to Egypt or Tunisia. Other attempts were hindered by tarmac damage in Benghazi and refusals to land in Tripoli. There were also several solidarity protests in other countries that were mostly composed of Libyan expatriates. Financial markets around the world had adverse reactions to the instability with oil prices rising to a two-and-a-half year high.

After an emergency meeting on 22 February, the Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings and Moussa issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities."[246][247] Libya was suspended from the UN Human Rights Council, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters.[248] A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia have taken action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.[249]

On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously in a resolution to impose strict sanctions, including targeted travel bans, against Gaddafi's government, as well as to refer Gaddafi and other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians, which could constitute crimes against humanity in violation of international law.[250]

Prime Minister David Cameron of the United Kingdom,[251] proposed the idea of no-fly zone that would prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using his military planes against civilians. However, this proposal was rejected by the leaders of other countries including Russia and China, with the notable exception of Italy's Silvio Berlusconi.[252][253][254][255]

The Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), a Darfuri rebel group in Sudan, has been accused by the Sudanese government of supporting Gaddafi.[256][257] This statement was categorically rejected by the JEM[258]

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Further reading

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